ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF EARTH

Prafulla D Vairagade
Geologist
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun, a terrestrial planet known to
harbor life, and the only one in our solar system with liquid water
on its surface.

• It's a dynamic planet with land, water, air, and a variety of life
forms.

THE ONLY HOME

• The origin of Earth took place around 4.54 billion years ago.

• The earlier theories regarding the origin and evolution of Earth are Nebular Hypothesis, Revised Nebular
Hypothesis as well as Binary Theories of origin of the Earth.

• The modern theories of the origin of the Earth are Big Bang Theory, Star Formation Theory, Planet Formation
Theory, etc.

• The evolution of Earth denotes how the Lithosphere, Atmosphere, and Hydrosphere of the Earth were created. It
also describes how life came into existence as the Earth evolved.

• The origin of life on Earth took place around 3.5 billion years ago.
The origin of Earth dates back approximately 4.54 billion years. Initially, Earth was a barren, rocky, and hot
object with a thin atmosphere composed of hydrogen and helium. The present composition of Earth’s
atmosphere includes nitrogen and oxygen.
Various scientists, philosophers, and scholars have played a significant role
in shaping early ideologies about the origin of Earth:

o Thales: He presented a scientific explanation, moving away from

mythological beliefs. According to his monotheistic theory, all
things originate from water, and eventually, they dissolve in
water.

o Anaximenes: He proposed that everything in the world originated

from air. According to his belief, air is infinite, transforms into
fire, becomes liquid, solidifies into water, and ultimately turns
into Earth.

o Pythagoras: He suggested that all matter in the world is limited.

Despite their differences, all substances represent one form, and
no single substance is considered the sole cause of the world’s
origin.

o Heraclitus: According to him, fire is the fundamental cause of the

world’s origin. Water and Earth emerged from fire, and these
elements are dynamic and transient, with nothing permanent in
the world.
In Hindu cosmology, the universe undergoes

cyclical creation and destruction, with Brahma,

Vishnu, and Shiva representing the Creator,

Preserver, and Transformer/Destroyer,

respectively, and the universe is believed to

emerge from a primordial state, often depicted as

a golden egg or the lotus flower from Vishnu's

navel.
The Qur'an states that "Allah created the
heavens and the earth, and all that is between
them, in six days" (7:54). While on the surface
this might seem similar to the account related
in the Bible, there are some important
distinctions. The verses that mention "six
days" use the Arabic word "youm" (day).
Any model or theory for the formation of the Solar System must have a set of explanations for large-scale and small-scale
properties.
Large-Scale:
[Link] planets are isolated in orderly intervals
[Link] are nearly circular
[Link] are in the same plane
[Link] planets revolve prograde
Small-Scale:
[Link] planets rotate prograde
[Link] systems of moons can be divided into regular objects (spherical) with direct orbits versus irregular objects with eccentric
orbits
[Link] planets have
1. high densities
2. thin or no atmospheres
3. rotate slowly
4. rocky, poor in ices and H/He
[Link] worlds have
1. low densities
2. thick atmospheres
3. rotate rapidly
4. many moons
5. fluid interiors, rich in ices, H/He
[Link] of outer SS objects (not just jovian worlds) are ice-rich
 Hypothesis Explanation

Dualistic Hypothesis Involves the interaction of two heavenly bodies.

Modern Hypothesis A contemporary approach to understanding the origin of Earth.

Monistic Concept Involves only one heavenly body in the origin process.

Comet Hypothesis (1749) Proposes the role of comets in Earth’s formation.

Gaseous Hypothesis (1755) Suggests the formation of a gaseous cloud.

Fission Theory (1878) Proposes Earth’s separation from the Sun through fission.

Nebular Hypothesis (1796) Involves the condensation of a nebula into Earth.

Meteoritic Hypothesis (1919) Considers meteorites as contributors to Earth’s formation.

Binary Star Hypothesis (1937) Involves the interaction of binary stars in Earth’s formation.

Big Bang Theory (1931) Suggests Earth’s origin from the aftermath of a big bang explosion.

Cosmic Inflation Theory (1980) Describes the rapid expansion of the universe after the Big Bang.

Interstellar Dust Hypothesis (1943) Proposes the role of interstellar dust in Earth’s formation.

Planetesimal Hypothesis (1905) Suggests the aggregation of small planetesimals to form Earth.

Tidal Hypothesis (1919) Considers tidal forces in Earth’s formation process.

Supernova Hypothesis Proposes the involvement of supernova explosions in Earth’s origin.

Monistic Concept (Parental Hypothesis)
• Advocates of the Monistic Concept propose that all planets originated from the same celestial object or body.

• Various scholars have presented diverse ideas about the solar system’s origin, suggesting a single-star origin.
Comet Hypothesis
• Proposed by Georges Louise Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1749, this
hypothesis suggests that a comet collided with the Sun, resulting in
fragments that later formed the planets.

• Considered the initial version of the cataclysmic hypothesis for the

solar system’s origin.

• Georges Louise Leclerc mistakenly assumed comets could be nearly as

large as stars.
Gaseous Hypothesis
• Introduced by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1755, this
theory posits the existence of divinely created matter particles in
the universe.

• These particles, initially hard, cold, and motionless, collided due

to gravity, generating heat and motion.

• Small particles fused into larger bodies, ultimately forming a

giant gaseous body called Nebula.

• The high rotational speed of Nebula led to increased heat,

causing the centrifugal force to surpass the centripetal force.

• Circular rings formed, cooled down, and transformed into

planets, while the remaining nebula evolved into the Sun over
millions of years.
Though Immanuel Kant based his gaseous hypothesis on scientific principles (Newton’s law of gravitation) to solve the
problem of the origin of the solar system and the earth but his hypothesis has been rendered baseless because it is
based on several erroneous facts of science. In fact, Kant’s hypothesis was declared dynamically unsound:

[Link] was one of the basic assumptions of Kant’s hypothesis that there was primordial matter in the universe but he never
explained the source of the origin of the primordial matter.

[Link] did not explain the source of energy to cause random motion of the particles of the primordial matter which
were cold and motionless in the initial stage.
1. According to Newton’s first law of motion ‘a body remains at rest, or if in motion it remains in uniform motion
with constant speed, unless or until an external force is applied on it.’ The particles of the primordial matter, as
assumed by Kant, were at rest and no external force was applied on them, then what was the cause for the
random motion among the particles of primordial matter?
3. The collision among the particles of the primordial matter can never generate rotatory motion in it. It is an
erroneous statement of mechanism.
It means that if anybody is rotating, the total amount of its angular momentum will always remain constant
unless an external force is applied on the rotating body.
This statement is erroneous as it is against the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Thus, the very foundation, on which Kant’s hypothesis was based, is proved unsound and wrong. However, the
importance of Kant’s hypothesis lies in the fact that it was first scientific attempt for the explanation of the origin
of the earth. In fact, Kant’s hypothesis paved the way for the postulation of nebular hypothesis by Laplace.
Nebular Hypothesis
• Described by French scholar Laplace in 1796, the Nebular Hypothesis
presents a hot, slow-moving superbody in the universe known as
a nebula.

• Over time, the nebula continuously cooled, contracting and reducing in

size and volume.

• Increased rotational speed led to a balance shift between centrifugal

and gravitational forces.

• A ring detached from the nebula, breaking into smaller rings that, upon
cooling, evolved into planets and satellites.

• Later, the French scholar Ross made modifications to Laplace’s

hypothesis. According to Ross, multiple rings gradually separated from
the nebula, and each ring condensed to give rise to a planet. The
continuous movement in a sequence led to the origin of all planets.
•Based on the above mentioned assumptions Laplace believed that the nebula was formed of gases rather than solids,
and that everything, including the sun, stars, plants, and asteroids, was formed from the nebula cloud.
•Initially, there was a nebula cloud composed of Helium, Hydrogen, and dust particles, with a size similar to that of
the present-day solar system.
•Since, Nebula was continuously reduced in size due to gradual loss of heat from the outer surface of the nebula
through radiation.
•Thus, Reduction in the size and volume of the nebula increased the circular velocity (rotatory motion) of the nebula.
•Due to the increase in velocity, nebula started spinning at very fast speed and consequently the centrifugal force
becomes so great that it exceeded the centripetal force.
•Consequently, the Outer surface was condensed due to excessive cooling and so it could not rotate with the still
cooling and contracting the central nucleus of the nebula.
•And, Thus the outer ring was separated from the remaining part of the nebula.
•And this separated ring started moving around the nebula.
•Laplace further maintained that the original ring was divided into nine rings and each ring moved away from the outer
ring.
•Thus, nine planets were formed from the nine rings and the remaining central nucleus of the nebula become the Sun.
Evaluations/ Limitations:
•He did not describe the source of the origin of the nebula.

•He did not explain that, why did only 9 rings come out from irregular ring detached from the nebula?

•If the sun is the remaining nucleus of the nebula as claimed Laplace, it should have a small bulge around its middle
part which would point out the probable separation of the irregular ring from the sun but there is no such bulge in
the middle part of the sun.

•According to the nebular hypothesis all satellites should revolve in the direction of father planets but few satellites
of Saturn and Jupiter revolve in the opposite direction of their father planets.

•The nebular hypothesis is unable to explain the peculiar distribution of present-day angular momentum in our solar
system.
Meteoritic Hypothesis
• Proposed by Russian scientist Otto Schmidt in 1944, this
hypothesis suggests that the Earth and other solar system
planets formed from interstellar matter clusters captured by
the Sun during its passage near the galactic center.

• Schmidt substantiated the regularity in the distance between

planets, their mass, and their density distribution.
•According to this theory, the initial universe comprised of stars & randomly distributed matter filling up the space
in between.
•According to Schmidt, this dark matter, started to revolve around the primitive rotating sun and gradually the dark
matter stars accreting & condensing & thus forming the solar system.
•Though Schmidt did not explain the mode of origin of these dark matters. These dark matters were called ‘inter-
stellar dusts’ by Schmidt.
•This theory may be considered as explaining the processes that preceded the Nebular accretionary process of
Laplace & Kant.
Dualistic Hypothesis
The proponents of this ideology believed that the planets originated from the combination of two stars.
Therefore, this concept is also known as the Bi-parental concept.
Planetesimal Hypothesis
• Proposed by Chamberlin and Moulton in 1905, this
hypothesis suggests that the solar system’s planets formed
from a collision between the Sun and another star.

• Small particles, known as granules, emerged from the Sun’s

surface due to gravitational forces, revolving around the Sun
and later condensing into planets.

Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin

• The controversy of peculiar redistribution of angular momentum
in our solar system from the original angular momentum of
Laplace’s nebula shattered the very basis of mono-parental or
monistic concepts of the origin of the earth (and the planets).

• That is why , the idea of biparental or dualistic concept of the

origin of the earth started gaining currency and respect among
the scientists of the 1st quarter of the 20th century.

• Planetesimal hypothesis propounded jointly by Chamberlin and

Moulton belongs to the dualistic concepts of the origin of the
earth.

Forest Ray Moulton

•Planetesimal hypothesis not only explains the origin of the earth but also throws light on the structure of the
earth, the origin of its atmosphere and continents and ocean basins.
•Unlike monistic concept (e.g. gaseous hypothesis of Immanuel Kant and nebular hypothesis of Laplace)
the planetesimal hypothesis envisaged the origin of the solar system (and the earth) with the help of two
heavenly bodies.
•According to Chamberlin initially there were two heavenly bodies (stars) in the universe –
• Proto-Sun
• and its Companion Star or Intruding star

The behavior and properties of proto-sun were not like other stars, It was formed of very small particles
which were cold and solid. Thus, the proto-sun, unlike Laplace’s nebula, was not hot and gaseous rather it
was formed of solid particles and was cold and circular in shape. There was another star, termed
as ‘intruding star’ or ‘companion star which was destined to pass very close the proto-sun
•When the intruding star came very close to the the Proto-Sun
infinite number of small particles were detached from the outer
surface of proto-sun due to massive gravitational pull exerted by
the giant intruding star. This matter which is dust, gases, rock
fragments eventually accrete forming planets & other celestial
bodies that revolve around the proto sun.
•Initially, the detached particles or planetesimals were just like dust
particles. The planetesimals were not of uniform size rather a few
planetesimals around the proto-sun were of fairly big size. These
larger planetesimals became nuclei for the formation of future
possible planets. Gradually, large planetesimals started attracting
small planetesimals.
•Thus, numerous small planetesimals were accreted (added) to the
nuclei of large planetesimals and ultimately these large
planetesimals grew in the form of planets due to continuous
accretion of infinite number of planetsimals. With the passage of
time, the remaining proto-sun changed into the present-day sun.
The satellites of the planets were created due to the repetition of
the same processes and mechanisms.
Tidal Hypothesis
• Sir James Jeans proposed this hypothesis in 1919 to
explain Earth’s origin.

• Harold Jeffreys modified the tidal hypothesis in 1929 for

increased relevance. According to this hypothesis, the
Sun was once a gaseous mass, and an intruding
star, larger than the Sun, came close.

• Tidal forces damaged the intruding star on the primitive

Sun’s surface, ejecting matter that became the building
material for future planets.

Sir James Jeans

•This theory is somewhat similar to Chamberlin’s theory that an intruding star
ejects matter from the proto sun. Chamberlin, in his theory, had assumed the
proto sun to be initially as a cold body whereas the Tidal theory assumes the
proto sun to be hot and incandescent.
•According to Tidal theory, the matter ejected are not randomly thrown dust,
gases, planetesimal.

Sir Harold Jeffreys

•The ejected matter was in the shape of a cigar and was called Filament from which the planets & other
celestial bodies accrete.

•This theory is the best interpretation in explaining the sizes of the planets as they have arranged themselves
away from the sun.
Binary Star Hypothesis
• Russell and Lyttleton proposed the binary star hypothesis in
1937, suggesting that the Sun was not initially the only star;
two others were present.

• The Sun and its companion star revolved around the same
center, and a third star’s approach increased the gravitational
force and attraction between them.

• Material from the companion star circled the giant stars,

forming planets and later satellites when solidified.

Prof. H.N. Russell

• Despite several hypotheses proposed to explain the formation of
the solar system, no one has been able to answer the dilemma of
the planets being thrown such tremendous distances from the sun.
• To solve this vexing difficulty, American astronomer Prof. H.N.
Russell hypothesized in 1937 that the sun was a binary star or twin-
star system. It indicates that the sun has a companion star.
• Now, if an intruding star approaches the Sun’s companion star, the
tidal filament (and planets that originate from it) is created by the
sun's companion at a large distance from the sun.
• The planets were closer together at first, and satellites were
formed as a result of their mutual gravitational attraction.
• Because the invading star was so far away from the sun, it is
unlikely to have any effect on the satellites.

Raymond Arthur Lyttleton FRS

Supernova Hypothesis
▪ Fred Hoyle and Lyttleton presented this hypothesis in 1939,
stating that planets originated from the explosion of a
companion star of the Sun involving three stars.

• The explosion of the companion star led to the scattering of dust

particles and gases, which eventually coalesced around the Sun,
forming the planets

Sir Fred Hoyle

•According to Hoyle initially there were two stars in the universe –
• Primitive Sun and
• Companion star
•The companion star was giant and later on became supernova due to
nuclear reaction.
•Over time, all of the hydrogen nuclei of companion star were consumed in
the process of nuclear reaction and it collapsed and violently exploded
•The Violent explosion of companion star resulted in the spread of
enormous mass of dust which started revolving around the primitive
sun in the form of a circular disc
•The matter of this disc became building material for the formation of the
future of planets.
•Thus, the planets of our solar system were formed due to condensation
of the matter of the disc.
Modern Hypothesis
• Modern theories seek to understand the formation of the universe, going beyond the evolution of Earth and
planets. Various modern hypotheses are discussed below.
Big Bang Theory
• Georges Lemaitre proposed the Big Bang theory in 1931, suggesting that all matter in the universe was once concentrated in a tiny
space with high temperatures.

• Robert Wagoner elaborated on this theory in 1967, following Edwin Hubble’s evidence of the expanding universe. The Big Bang
theory posits that the universe began about 13.7 billion years ago in a massive expansion.

• The creation of substances after the explosion formed various objects, leading to the formation of galaxies over time. Fission in
galaxies may have produced stars, and fission in stars may have produced planets.

• The Steady-State theory, an alternative to the Big Bang, was developed by Fred Hoyle in 1948, suggesting a continuous creation of
matter to maintain the density of the expanding universe. However, it didn’t gain widespread acceptance.

Georges Lemaitre Robert Wagoner Edwin Hubble Fred Hoyle

Cosmic Inflation Theory
• Alan Harvey Guth proposed the Cosmic Inflation theory in
1980, suggesting that the early universe experienced rapid
exponential expansion for a brief period after the Big Bang.

• This theory gained support with the discovery of gravitational

waves, reinforcing the inflation model of cosmology.
Evidence in support:

1. Red Shift: As an object (light)

moves away from us, its
wavelength increases & shift to
the Red end of the spectrum
(Called Red Shift).
2. CBMR: (Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation) Electromagnetic Radiation which was
present shortly after the big bang, is now
observed as background microwave radiation.
 Earth is ~ 4,570,000,000 years old
• Meteorites give us access to debris left over from the formation of the
solar system
• We can date meteorites using radioactive isotopes and their decay
products
 Bombardment From Space
For the first half billion years of its existence, the surface of the Earth was
repeatedly hit by asteroids and comets of all sizes
One of these collisions formed the Moon
 The Early Earth Heats Up
Three major factors that caused heating and melting in the early
Earth’s interior:

1. Collisions (Transfer of
kinetic energy into heat)
2. Compression
3. Radioactivity of elements
(e.g. uranium, potassium,
or thorium)
 The Core
About 100 million years after initial accretion, temperatures at depths of 400 to 800
km below the Earth’s surface reach the melting point of iron

In a process called global chemical

differential, the heavier elements, including
the melted iron, began to sink down into the
core of the Earth, while the lighter elements
such as oxygen and silica floated up
towards the surface
 Global Chemical Differentiation
This global chemical differential was completed by about 4.3 billion years ago, and the Earth
had developed a inner and outer core, a mantle and crust
 Chemical Composition of Earth
Lithosphere: strong, rocky outer shell of the solid Earth including all the crust and the
upper part of the mantle to a depth of ~100 km (forms the plates)
Asthenosphere: weak, ductile layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere; deforms
to accommodate the motions of the overlying plates
Deep Mantle: mantle beneath the asthenosphere (~400 to 2900 km in depth)
Outer core: liquid shell composed of mostly iron
Inner core: innermost sphere composed primarily of solid iron
 The Evolving Atmosphere
Right after its creation, the Earth is thought to have had a thin atmosphere
composed primarily of helium (He) and hydrogen (H) gases

The Earths gravity could not

hold these light gases and they
easily escaped into outer space
Today, H and He are very rare in
our atmosphere
 The Evolving Atmosphere
• For the next several hundred million years, volcanic out-gassing began to create a thicker
atmosphere composed of a wide variety of gases
• The gases that were released were probably similar to those created by modern volcanic eruptions
Earth must be ashamed of being habitable…