Earth Science

Units in this course

 Origin and Structure of the Earth

 Earth Materials and Resources
 Earth Processes
 History of the Earth

Origin and Structure of the Earth

4 topics40 questions

Topics under this unit

 The Origin of the Universe

 The Origin of the Solar System
 Earth: The Living Planet
 Earth: The Four Subsystems

The Origin of the Universe

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the
universe specifically, the Big Bang Theory, the Steady State Theory, and the Oscillating Universe
Theory.

How did the universe start?

Big Bang Theory

The most accepted theory about the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. Georges
Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the first proponent of the Big Bang Theory. The theory
was supported by other scientists such as Edwin Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert Wilson who
presented pieces of evidence to support it.

The Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a “singularity”—an area predicted to be in
the core of a black hole with a very high temperature and density, which compressed matter with its
intense gravitational pressure.

Singularity
The presence of the singularity is still a mystery to many scientists, but they stated that this
singularity constantly expands and cools. The rate of expansion is almost equal to the rate of
cooling; at this moment, there is a build up of intense heat which leads to the increase in the
expansion of the singularity.

The intense heat also leads to the creation of matter and antimatter that are being destroyed every
time they collide with each other. During this moment, the number of matter dominates over the
number of antimatter. This started the dominance of matter, or atomic particles, in the early universe.
These particles undergo nucleosynthesis wherein they combine to form another atomic particle.

Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium. These
chemicals then lead to the formation of the stars and the galaxies. The presence of the stars leads to
the formation of larger matter such as planets, comets, and other celestial bodies. Ever since the Big
Bang happened, the universe continuously expands, and the occurrence of the cosmic background
radiation was suggested to be an aftermath of the explosion that happened 20 billion years ago.

Steady State Theory

The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, suggests
that the universe has always been there and will always be present. It also conveys that the universe
always looks the same in any time or space but continuously expands while simultaneously creating
matter, maintaining the density of the universe; hence, the name Steady State.

The Steady State Theory is so simple that it was widely accepted even before the proposal of the
Big Bang Theory. The discovery of the cosmic background radiation significantly supported the
explanations given by the Big Bang Theory, which led many scientists to reject the Steady State
Theory. This theory first explained that the cosmic background radiation is a result of a supernova.
But after a thorough research, it was proven that it is equal in any direction of the universe and could
not only be a result of many supernovae.

Oscillating Universe Theory

The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to as the Pulsating Theory, discusses that the
universe is expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. This
theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be described as the combination of the Big Bang and the
Big Crunch.

The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and eventually reverses, then collapses
causing a singularity or the formation of another Big Bang. The Oscillating Universe Theory suggests
that once the universe reverses and attains the point of singularity, another universe will be born.
This is referred to as the Big Bounce. Tolman theorized that the universe may be first in the cycle
and could be a result of a previous Big Bounce event.

Just like in the Steady State Theory, scientists discovered many loopholes in the Oscillating
Universe Theory because it was said that for the universe to collapse, energy must be present. This
theory suggests that the universe will collapse on its own after it reaches its full expansion, which
violates some laws of physics.

Explore
Aside from the theories discussed in this lesson, what other theories can you suggest to explain the
origin of the universe? You may use the internet to search for other theories.
Try it!
Choose one of the theories about the origin of the universe. Create a concept map illustrating the
events that happen in the universe as explained by that theory.

What do you think?

Do you think the universe has a beginning or has it always existed? Explain your answer.

Key Points
 Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded. This
explosion resulted to the formation of all the matter in universe.

 Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always been there and will always be
present.

 Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is expanding and will contract
once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up. The collapsing of the universe will then
lead to the formation of a new universe.

The Origin of the Solar System

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of
the Solar System, specifically the Nebular Theory, the Encounter Theory, and the Protoplanet
Theory.

The solar system is composed of the Sun, the planets and their satellites, the comets, and the
asteroids. It is believed that the solar system has been formed around 4.6 billion years ago, and the
evidence suggests that the members of the solar system have a fairly uniform age.

Nebular Theory
The nebular theory explains that the solar system originated from a nebula – a gas cloud made up
of hydrogen particles. Before the nebula is stable, it is believed that a nearby supernova resulted in
the disruption of a nebula. This disruption created areas of high density, and as these areas were
formed, gravity acted, pulling other materials to it. The denser the nebula became, the more heat it
produced that resulted in the formation of the Sun.

At first, the Sun looked like a disc (imagine a CD), and as it rotates, most of its mass fused in the
center. As the Sun forms, the remaining particles that were not sucked up by the Sun formed as
rings. These rings of particles rotated and combined to form planets. As it forms, the denser
materials, such as iron and nickel, sank and the less dense materials, such as gases, floated to the
atmosphere of the formed planets.

Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

Terrestrial planets, including Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, were formed because only the
materials with higher densities and melting points were able to form near the very high temperature
of the Sun. On the other hand, the Jovian planets composed of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune, are huge planets made up of gases without land surfaces. These planets were formed
farther from the Sun because the temperature away from the Sun was cool enough for gases to
condense, forming these less dense planets.

The origins of the Nebula Theory can be credited to Emmanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant,
and Pierre – Simon Laplace.

Encounter Theory
The Encounter Theory proposed by Georges Leclerc and Comte de Buffon explains that the
solar system formed as a result of a near collision between a passing star and the Sun. As the star
passes near the Sun, the materials of both the Sun and the star were drawn out. The interaction
from the gravity of the passing star and the Sun led to the formation of the planets in the solar
system.

It is believed that the materials from the Sun are denser. This explains the positions of the terrestrial
planets near the Sun. In contrast, the materials from the passing star are less dense; thus,
explaining the positions of the Jovian planets at a distance from the Sun.

Protoplanet Theory
The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. Just like the nebular
theory, protoplanetary theorists Carl von Weizsäcker and Gerard Kuiper believed that the solar
system started from a nebula.

An unidentified instability resulted in the pulling of dust particles toward each other. This led to the
formation of the “planetesimals” – objects made up of dust and rock particles, which is believed to be
the origin of planets. Planetesimals combined with other planetesimals and formed protoplanets –
larger planetesimals. As the protoplanets formed, like the Sun, they became larger as other
materials condensed with them until the fusion of hydrogen and helium happened. This fusion led to
the production of the heat of the Sun and resulted to the blasting off of the protoplanets made up of
gases. The smaller protoplanets were attracted by the gravity of the larger protoplanets and made
them larger until they became the planets as we know it.

Try it!
Based on the theories about the origin of the solar system, compare the events that happened in its
formation.
What do you think?
After learning about the theories explaining the origin of the solar system, what theory do you believe
the most? Explain your answer.

Key Points
 The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated from a nebula that was
disrupted by a nearby supernova.
 The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed as a result of a near collision
between a passing star and the Sun.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis stating that the
Solar System started from a nebula that was disrupted which led to the formation of
protoplanets.

Earth: The Living Planet

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the different characteristics of the earth
necessary for the growth and survival of life.

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms
including humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in
our solar system that permits life. The different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the
proliferation of life.

Earth’s Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide,
and other components. The table below shows the major components in the atmosphere and their
relative concentrations
(Source: http://www.ucar.edu/communications/gcip/m7sssystem/m7pdfc3.pdf).
The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide permits life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is used by
photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to convert the energy from the sun to usable
energy through the process of photosynthesis. The oxygen makes it livable for living organisms
including humans for respiration and for our cells to function.

Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation. Thirty percent of the radiation is
reflected away by the atmosphere, clouds, and the earth's surface. Another 25% is absorbed by the
atmosphere and clouds, and the remaining 45% is absorbed by the earth’s surface. Ozone or O3 is
composed of three oxygen atoms. In the stratosphere, O3 is abundant in the form of the ozone layer.
This layer absorbs the ultraviolet wavelengths, and the absorption of this radiation heats up the air.
Soil and Vegetation
The soil is a mixture of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and organisms. It is a living medium—a
medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation. The soil promotes growth for plants by providing
nutrients, water, and as a substrate for anchorage of roots. In return, vegetation produces trees and
forests cover, ensures the water and nutrient cycle, and prevents soil and wind erosion. This mutual
relationship of the soil and vegetation makes our planet livable.

Earth’s Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water on our planet including ice and vapor. Nearly three-quarters
of the earth’s surface is the sea and the ocean. The ocean houses many species of marine life and
diverse mineral resources. Other forms of water include river, streams, and lakes. Other than being
a water reservoir, these forms of water are all sources of fish and shellfish that we consume. They
also serve as thermostat and heat reservoir, especially the ocean. They also serve as ways for
transportation.

Explore!
Imagine that you have a garden. Get one plant that could fit in a pot but do not put soil when you
transfer it. Put the plant inside a box and leave it for one week. What do you think will happen to the
plant? How would you relate this scenario with the different characteristics of the Earth?
Try it!
Research about the characteristics of other planets in the Solar System which make them unfit for
growth and life.

What do you think?

Are the characteristics of the earth interrelated with one another? If yes, how do they affect each
other?

Key Points
 The atmosphere consists of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 350 ppm carbon
dioxide, and other components.
 The presence of oxygen and carbon dioxide makes Earth habitable.
 Earth’s atmosphere also protects us from the sun’s radiation.
 The soil is a living medium—a medium for growth of all kinds of vegetation.
 The hydrosphere serves as a water reservoir, a source of fish and shellfish that we consume,
a thermostat and heat reservoir, and a way for transportation.

Earth: The Four Subsystems

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems,
across whose boundaries matter and energy flow.

The four subsystems of the Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

What are the characteristics of these four subsystems?

The Earth is comprised of four major subsystems. These subsystems are also called the “spheres of
the Earth.” They are atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.

Atmosphere
The word atmosphere comes from the Greek roots atmos which means gas, and sphaira which
means globe or ball. The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on Earth. It extends outward about
10 000 km from the surface of the Earth. It is composed of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9%
argon, 350 ppm carbon dioxide, and other components.

The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere.
  The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest layer
where the weather forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that
protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the Earth
from the impact of space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged particles
that are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The particles create the Auroras or Northern
and Southern lights.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the Earth's
surface.

Geosphere
Geo is a Greek root which means ground. Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals
present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It is divided into three layers namely crust, mantle, and
core.

The crust is the outermost layer of the geosphere. It is made mostly of silicate materials. There are
two different types of crust, the oceanic and continental crusts. The thin oceanic crust that lies
beneath the oceanic floors is about 5 to 10 km thick. On the other hand, the thicker continental
crust that makes up the continents is about 15 to 70 km thick.

The mantle, which lies just below the crust, is made mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and
iron. It is about 2900 km thick. It has increasing temperatures at increasing depths. For instance, the
layer with the lowest temperature is the one right beneath the crust. This layer, which is soft enough
to flow, causes the plates of the crust to move. On the other hand, the layer with the highest
temperature is found in contact with the heat-producing core.

The core, which has a radius of 3400 km, is the innermost layer of the Earth. It is made up of iron
and nickel. It is the source of internal heat because it contains radioactive materials that release
energy as they decay into more stable substances.

Hydrosphere
Hydro is a Greek root which means water. Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in
any form: water vapor, liquid water, and ice. It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and 2.5% freshwater.
It includes all bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Clouds and rain are also
part of the hydrosphere.

The water on Earth is constantly moving. It moves through the oceans in currents. Warm waters in
the tropics move toward the poles while cold water from the polar regions move toward the tropics.
Water also flows into streams and rivers and through the rocks underground. It can also move from
the Earth’s surface to the air by evaporation and then fall back to Earth as precipitation. It even
moves into and out of the bodies of organisms.
Biosphere
Bio is a Greek root that means life. The biosphere is comprised of all living things. It includes all
microbes, plants, and animals. It extends to the upper areas of the atmosphere where insects and
birds can be found. It also reaches the deep parts of the oceans where marine organisms can still
survive.

Organisms interact with the other spheres to survive. Many organisms need oxygen and carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere to carry out life processes. Water, which comprises the hydrosphere, is
also important to organisms. Finally, the rocks, soil, and minerals constitute the geosphere also
support life.

Learn about it!

How the Earth’s Subsystems Interact

Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems. These cycles make life
on Earth possible. An example of these cycles is the water cycle. Water moves between the different
spheres. It absorbs, releases, and transports energy around the world in its different forms.

What will happen if matter or energy does not change from one form to another?

For example, what if water vapor does not fall back to the Earth as rain? Then the bodies of water
will be drained, and no life on Earth will exist.

Tips
Some of the components in the subsystems overlap. The most common example is the soil which
can be considered as a part of hydrosphere, geosphere, and even biosphere. Since the soil is a
complex material made up of air, soil particles, water, and organisms, it underscores that a clear
division among subsystems cannot be drawn.

Explore
Imagine that you are part of NASA’s special mission and you are tasked to discuss the things
needed to replicate the Earth’s system in another planet. What are the things necessary to enable
life in that planet?

What do you think?

What is the importance of studying the interactions among the four subsystems?

Key Points
 The four subsystems of Earth are the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
  Atmosphere makes up of all the gases in our planet.
 Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and minerals present in the crust to the core of the
Earth.
 Hydrosphere is composed of all the water on Earth in any form: water vapor, liquid water,
and ice.
 Biosphere is comprised of all living things and the areas where they are found. It includes all
microbes, plants, and animals.
 Matter and energy move and cycle between the four different subsystems to make life on
Earth possible.

Earth Materials and Resources

18 topics180 questions

Topics under this unit

 Rock-Forming Minerals
 Rocks: Its Three Main Categories and Mineral Composition
 Important Minerals in Society
 Ore Minerals: How They Are Found and Mined
 The Exploitation, Extraction, and Use of Mineral Resources: Ways to Prevent the
Environmental Impact
 The Fossil Fuels
 The Geothermal Energy
 The Hydroelectric Energy
 Ways to Address the Different Environmental Concerns Related to the Use of Fossil
Fuels, Geothermal Energy, and Hydroelectric Energy
 How Water is Distributed on Earth
 The Various Water Resources on Earth
 How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water
 Ways of Conserving and Protecting Water Resources
 Human Activities That Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil
 Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations
 How People Generate Different Types of Waste
 How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health and the Environment
 Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the
Community

Rock-Forming Minerals

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify common rock-forming minerals using their
physical and chemical properties.

What are the different physical and chemical properties of minerals?

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a definite
chemical composition.
Identification of Minerals
There are several laboratory and field techniques used to distinguish minerals based on physical
and chemical properties. Some minerals can be identified with the use of high-powered instruments
while some can be assessed through their physical properties.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Physical properties are useful when working in the field, where there is usually no access to complex
analytical techniques. Although a particular mineral has different forms, the fundamental physical
properties are still the same. Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak,
luster, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.

 The color of a mineral depends on the elements which constitute the crystal lattice – the
arrangement of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a specific pattern and with high symmetry. The
reflection of certain wavelengths of light by the crystal lattice results in the color perceived by
the observer.
 Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form.
 Luster is the relative differences in the opacity and transparency of a mineral as light is
reflected on its surface. This describes the 'sparkles' of the mineral surfaces.
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of the water with an
equal volume.
 Hardness is the measure of the resistance of a surface to abrasions or scratches. It is
generally measured using Mohs Scale of Hardness.

 Cleavage is the tendency of the mineral to be split or broken along flat surfaces.

 Fracture refers to the texture or shape of the mineral’s surface when the mineral breaks into
forms other than flat surfaces.

 Tenacity refers to the behavior of the mineral under deformation or stress such as cutting,
crushing, bending, or hitting.

 Crystal habit refers to the growth crystal pattern of a mineral as single or aggregated.

Chemical Properties of Minerals

All minerals have a certain arrangement of elements in their crystal structure. They can be
represented by a chemical formula, which presents the proportions of atoms that constitute them.
For example, the mineral quartz has a chemical formula SiO2. Its crystal structure is a continuous
framework of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.
The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure.
Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.

 Solubility refers the ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent at a specified temperature.

For example, biotite, a mineral commonly found in igneous rocks, is soluble in both acid and
base solutions. The dissolution releases the loosely-bound potassium ions in the mineral.
 Melting point refers to the temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Minerals composed of
atoms that are tightly bonded within the crystal structure have high melting points. For
example, quartz melts above 1670°C.

In the laboratory, the composition and crystal structure of minerals can be analyzed through
chemical and instrumental analysis. Crystallographic techniques such as X-ray diffraction are
performed to determine the crystal structure of the mineral.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and
olivine. All of the following silicate minerals, except for quartz, are mineral groups.

Quartz
Quartz has a chemical composition of SiO2. It is a glassy-looking hard substance with white streaks.
Despite its hardness, with a Mohs hardness of 7, it is quite brittle. Pure quartz is clear and
transparent. Colored varieties of quartz are due to elemental impurities built into its lattice. The
grains of quartz, in general, are irregular in shape.
Feldspar
Feldspar has a chemical composition of XAl(1−2)Si(3−2)O8, where X is K, Ca, or Na. It is quite hard
with a Mohs hardness of 6. It is a light-colored material, usually white, but they can have lighter
shades of red or green. It has a glassy luster. In rocks, feldspar forms rectangular crystals that break
along flat faces.
Mica
Mica is any group of hydrous potassium aluminum silicate minerals. The most common examples
are clear muscovite and black biotite. Mica is soft, with Mohs hardness ranging from 2 to 2.5. It is
easily identified by its perfect cleavage, reducing it to thin smooth flakes. Its shine is responsible for
the flashes of light in rocks such as granite and slate.

Pyroxene
Pyroxene minerals have a general composition of XY(Al,Si)2O6 where X is CaorMg and Y is
either Mg,Fe,Al. Augite is the most common of this group. It has a glassy luster with streaks of white,
light green, or light brown. It is generally black in color and has stubby prismatic crystals. Its key
feature is its two cleavages at around 90°.
Amphibole
Amphibole has a dark color with a Mohs hardness ranging from 5 to 6. Hornblende is the most
common amphibole. It has a glassy luster and an opaque characteristic. Its crystals are very long
and very thin.

Olivine
Olivine is a silicate mineral with a general chemical composition of (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4, but calcium,
manganese, and nickel can be substituted for magnesium and iron. It is known for its distinct olive-
green color and commonly used in the gemstone industry as peridot. It is a glassy looking and
transparent substance that is almost as hard as quartz. Its crystals have a granular shape.

Explore!
Silicates like quartz are among the Earth’s most important natural resources. There would be no
computers, phones, glass, or bricks. All of these rely on silicate minerals as raw materials. What
other minerals are known to have important uses like silicates?

Try it!
Research on the different kinds of minerals found in common products (e.g. lipstick, glass) that you
use every day.

What do you think?

Is there a possibility for the physical characteristics of rock minerals to change over time? Explain
your answer.

Key Points
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid material that has a fixed structure and a
definite chemical composition.
 Minerals can be distinguished based on physical and chemical properties.
 Useful physical properties to identify a mineral include color, streak, luster, specific gravity,
hardness, cleavage, tenacity, and crystal habit.
 The chemical properties of minerals depend on their chemical formula and crystal structure.
Solubility and melting point are chemical properties commonly used to describe a mineral.
 The most common rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole,
and olivine.

Rocks: Its Three Main Categories and Mineral Composition

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.

How are rocks classified?

Rocks are classified according to how they are formed. From the diagram above, we can see that:

1. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.

2. Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and
pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.
3. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process
called lithification.

Also, we can see that one type of rock can be transformed into another type depending on the
process that it goes through.

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are further classified as intrusive or extrusive igneous based on grain size.

 Intrusive rocks, or plutonic rocks, are igneous rocks formed underneath the earth. They are
coarse-grained due to the slow cooling of magma allowing crystal growth.
 Extrusive rocks, or volcanic rocks, are igneous rocks formed on the surface of the earth.
They are cooled lava, which are molten rocks ejected on the surface through volcanic
eruptions. They are fine-grained due to abrupt cooling on the surface.

Igneous rocks can also be classified based on grain size, general composition, and percentage
mineral composition. The diagram below shows the four general compositions of igneous rocks–
light-colored or felsic, intermediate, dark-colored mafic, and ultramafic.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic or non-clastic.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of sediments from preexisting rocks. When

preexisting rocks are physically weathered and eroded, they form sediments. When these
sediments are transported, deposited, and lithified, they form the clastic sedimentary rocks.
These rocks can be identified based on their grain sizes that can range from 0.002 mm (e.g.
clay size) to > 2 mm (coarse gravel).

 Non-clastic sedimentary rocks can be biological, chemical, or a combination of

both. Biological sedimentary rocks are lithified accumulation of dead organisms. Examples
include coal (formed from carbon-rich plants) and limestone (formed from the remains of
calcareous organisms). On the other hand, chemical sedimentary rocks are from chemical
precipitation. An example is rock salt formed when dissolved salts precipitate from a solution.
Below is a table of chemical sedimentary rocks based on composition and texture size.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks can be classified as foliated or non-foliated based on texture.

 Foliated metamorphic rocks have layered or banded appearance produced by exposure to

high temperatures and pressures.

o Examples include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.

 In contrast, non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have layered appearance.

o Examples include marble, quartzite, and anthracite.

Foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks can be further classified based on their parent rocks.
However, such classification can be difficult because of the rock alteration during metamorphism.
The table below shows the parent rocks of different foliated and non-foliated rocks.
Try it!
Collect some rock samples from random places in your area and classify each rock whether it is
igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock. Further classify them into the specific type of each
classification of rock.

What do you think?

How do rocks undergo weathering?

Key Points
 Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling or solidification of magma or lava.
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by preexisting rocks that are exposed to extreme heat and
pressure in the Earth’s interior, a process called metamorphism.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments, a process
called lithification.

Important Minerals in Society

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the different minerals that are important in
the society.
Can you spot ten minerals found in this kitchen?

What did you have for breakfast this morning? Chances are, you have already encountered a
mineral and even ingested it without even noticing. Can you guess what mineral that is?

Salt, a mineral from halite, is one of the essential minerals that we always use at home. It makes
food tastier and brings out the flavor of what you are eating. Can you imagine life without salt?
Picture this. You are like watching television in black and white. It shows you different landscapes,
sceneries, and objects but the colors are the same -- black and white. Dull isn't it? Just like in food, if
there is no salt added, even if the presentation is beautiful, the food will still taste bland. That is how
important salt is.

One may not realize it, but minerals are important in our lives. From morning until one sleeps, people
interact with minerals. Minerals are components of materials we use, buildings we build, and assets
we keep. That is how important minerals are in our everyday life.

Home and Personal Use

Aside from salt, other minerals compose some of the items and equipment found in our
houses. Feldspar is a component for ceramics, glassware, and pottery. It is also an ingredient in
making soaps. Fluorite is also used in ceramics and pottery. It is commonly known as a component
of toothpaste in the form of fluoride. Gold, silver, and platinum are made into pieces of jewelry and
other important articles at home. Quartz is used for the production of glass and fiberglass usually
used at home.

Electronics, Infrastructure, and Manufacturing

Numerous minerals are important to infrastructure and manufacturing. A very good example of this is
copper. Copper serves as an important material in electronics and wiring because of its conductive
properties. Silver is utilized in electronics for the same reason. Silica is a mineral that
contains silicon, a metalloid that has some properties of metals such as the ability to conduct
electricity. Tungsten and molybdenum are used widely for the filament in incandescent bulbs
because of their high melting points. Iron ores are used for stainless steel production. Barium,
chromite, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, and nickel serve as alloys in the production of other
metals. Bauxite is an ore where aluminum is derived. It is important for the production of cement for
construction. Copper and lead are also utilized widely in the construction field. Quartz, in the form
of sand, is also valuable in construction and manufacturing. Graphite, known in your pencil "lead”,
can also be used in manufacturing.

Economics
Mining of minerals contribute to the gross domestic product (GDP) of a country. Gold is used as a
reserve and serves as a backup for currencies. The amount of reserves of gold correlates to
inflation. If the central bank of a country buys gold, the country’s currency is affected because of the
fluctuations in the supply and demand of the currency.
Precious Minerals and Other Uses
Some minerals are used as gemstones. Rubies and sapphires contain aluminum oxide. Emeralds
are from the mineral beryl. Quartz is also considered as a semi-precious mineral. Diamond, a
form of carbon, is considered as the most precious mineral. It is also the hardest mineral (10 on the
Mohs Scale). Though commonly used for jewelry, some uncut diamonds are placed as additive for
metal cutters because of its hardness.

In some cases, minerals are used in the medical field. Examples of these minerals are barium that
is a helpful additive to medicine in x-rays of the digestive system, and iron which is used to treat
anemia.

Examples
The illustration below gives you an idea on how some minerals and ores used in industries look like.

Explore!
Try to recall the things in your classroom or bedroom. Can you identify twenty items that used
minerals in their production or operation?

Try it!
Imagine that there will be a science contest in your school. If you were to invent something that can
be used in your community, what minerals will you use? Explain what your invention will be, what
minerals will you use, and why will you use these minerals.
What do you think?
Mining is the primary method of acquiring all these minerals. Some anti-mining groups are
contesting about the effects of mining on the environment. The pro-mining groups are defending that
mining is not harmful to the environment. Research on this topic and make a stand. With all the use
of minerals but with the possible negative effects in the environment, should all mining activities be
stopped? Why?

Key Points
 Minerals can be seen in everyday life.
 Minerals have various uses in the society, homes, and even personal use such as feldspar,
fluorite, gold, silver, platinum, and quartz.
 Minerals are also widely used in construction, electronics, and manufacturing like aluminum,
barium, chromite, cobalt, copper, iron ores, lead, graphite, quartz, silver, silica,
tungsten, molybdenum, and nickel.
 Some minerals have unique uses in the medical field as well as economics such as barium,
iron, and gold.

Ore Minerals: How They Are Found and Mined

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe how ore minerals are found, mined, and
processed for human use.

What methods are used in mining ore minerals?

A mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic substance that has a definite chemical
composition. In this case, some important elements including metals can be economically extracted
from specialized rocks called ore deposits.

Methods of Mining
There are two methods of mining: surface mining and underground mining.

 Surface mining is used to extract ore minerals near the surface of the earth. The soil and
rocks that covered the ores are removed through blasting. Blasting is a controlled use of
explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. Some examples of surface mining are open-pit
mining, quarrying, and strip mining.

 Underground mining is used to extract the rocks, minerals, and other precious stones that
can be found beneath the earth’s surface. In underground mining, miners need to create a
 tunnel so they can reach the ore minerals. This kind of mining is more expensive and
dangerous as compared to surface mining because miners need to use explosive devices to
remove the minerals from the rocks that cover them.

Mineral Processing
Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and preparing
these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals include sampling and
analysis, comminution, concentration, and dewatering.

1. Sampling is the removal of a portion which represents a whole needed for the analysis of this
material. One or more samples are needed.

2. Analysis is important to evaluate the valuable components in an ore. This includes chemical,
mineralogical, and particle size analysis.

 Chemical analysis uses electric discharge which excites the elements in the sample to emit
a certain spectra which will reveal the identity of the elements as well as its concentration.

 Mineralogical analysis uses heavy liquid-testing that aims to separate the less dense,
same density, and denser materials.

 Coarsely grounded minerals are classified according to particle size through sieving.

Mineral Processing
3. Comminution is the process where the valuable components of the ore are separated through
crushing and grinding. This process begins by crushing the ores to a particular size and finishes it by
grinding the ores into a powder form.

4. Concentration involves the separation of the valuable minerals from the raw materials.

 Optical separation is a process used in the concentration of minerals with distinct contrasting
colors (black and white) seen with the naked eye.
 Gravity separation is a process that uses the density of minerals as the concentrating agent
and performs a sink and float separation of water and the grounded minerals.
 Flotation separation is the most widely used method that makes use of the mineral’s
wettability to water or chemicals.
 Magnetic separation is a process that involves different degrees of attraction of minerals to
magnets.
 Electrostatic separation is a process that separate the mineral particles based on their
electric charges.

5. Dewatering uses the concentrates to convert it to usable minerals. This involves filtration and
sedimentation of the suspension, and drying of the solid material harvested from this suspension.

Explore!
Mining ores for minerals, such as metals, are necessary for electrical appliances and wires, kitchen
wares, medical apparatuses, construction materials, and even jewelry. Think of your kitchen. Can
you cook your food without a stove? Or can you cut the meat or vegetables without the use of a
knife?

Try it!
Go to the nearest beach or river and using a cup, try to get a sample from the water. Make sure that
you get a sample near the shore or in the lower parts of the river. What do you notice? Can you
relate this on how minerals are found?

What do you think?

What do you think will be the effect in our country if we stop mining minerals?

Key Points
 Ores are special types of rocks or solid materials that contain minerals.
 The two methods of mining or extracting minerals from rocks are surface
mining and underground mining.
 Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ores, refining them, and
preparing these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals
include sampling and analysis, comminution, concentration, and dewatering.

The Exploitation, Extraction, and Use of Mineral Resources: Ways to Prevent the
Environmental Impact

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental
impacts resulting from the exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral resources.

In the previous lessons, you have learned how minerals are useful to the society. You also
encountered how these minerals are extracted from the earth.

How do these extraction processes affect the environment? What are the ways to alleviate
the negative effects of mineral extraction?

The minerals are contained in ores. After processing, only the mineral is used, and the remaining
of the ore is disposed as waste. These wastes, if not handled and managed properly, can cause
serious environmental problems.

Mining generates a lot of wastes. For example, a mine obtains one kilo of copper. In the process of
extracting one kilo, 99 kilos of wastes are removed. Simply put, ore will be one percent (1%) useful
mineral and 99% wastes. Can you imagine how much waste is produced in mining?
Mining Waste Products and Their Management
Heavy metal wastes can seep through soil making it poisonous for plants to grow. Water sources
can be contaminated by the acid used in the mining process. Tailings, a by-product of milling ores,
can travel from the dump ponds into the water source of nearby communities. In the Philippines,
some of these wastes damaged mangroves, reefs, and impaired agriculture.

It is then crucial that waste products be controlled to prevent them from making a more pronounced
impact in our environment. There are ways to lessen the wastes and effects on the environment.

1. Recent improvements in technology enable mining companies to extract more minerals from

the ores with fewer wastes in production.

2. The mining companies must be able to plan out their sites from exploration to rehabilitation.

3. The mining company must also ensure that they are able to restore the community that was
displaced because of their activities.

4. Tailings from mines can be zoned in and surrounded by lands so that plants can avoid
erosion of the ponds thus minimizing the possibility of seepage of the tailings.

5. Mine structures should be designed at par or even surpassing current rules and
regulations set by the government and international standards.

6. Other mining practices include reforestation, slope stabilization, maintenance for dump

facilities, managing and monitoring air and water quality, erosion control, and water
conservation.

There are existing laws and regulations for mining in the Philippines. One of the laws governing
mining in the Philippines is the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 or RA 7942. This law aims primarily
to establish rules and regulations of mining practices in the country and to attract foreign investors to
explore the potential of minerals in the country. At the same time, the law also intends to balance the
mining industry, the culture, and the protection of the environment. In 2012, Executive Order (EO)
79, Series of 2012 aimed to strengthen the provisions of the Philippine Mining Act of 1995. This EO
imposed stricter rules on the environmental protection and waste management of different mining
companies.

The key in making mining sustainable is to implement and to practice responsible mining. This
entails determination from the mining companies to do their part in abiding the law. Companies
practicing responsible mining assure that from step one, they are looking forward to the rehabilitation
steps that they will take after their exploitation. Responsible miners also consider the health,
livelihood, and homes of the communities that will be affected by their ventures. However, it does not
end with the mining companies. The government and residents must also do their part in ensuring
that responsible mining is implemented.

Explore!
Coal mines blast off rocks to get an ore, thus, dust is released through dust explosion ignited with
air. This kind of mining releases methane that contributes more to greenhouse effect. If you were
given one day to stay in a community near coal mines, what will you do to help in giving awareness
to the people living in that community?

Try it!
Research on the different mining accidents that occurred in the Philippines before and after the
implementation of Philippine Mining Act of 1995 and after the Executive Order 79, Series of 2012.
Compare and contrast the accidents that occurred and the responses of the government and the
mining companies.

What do you think?

What can ordinary citizens like us do to help the government and the mining companies alleviate the
environmental effects of mining?

Key Points
 Mining is the primary method of mineral extraction.
 Negative environmental impacts can result from mining.
 Multiple ways are done by mining companies and small-scale miners to lessen these
negative impacts.
 The government implements laws regarding the environmental protection of areas
surrounding mining projects.
 Responsible mining is one of the keys in environmental sustainability.

The Fossil Fuels

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how different fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas)
are formed.

How are fossil fuels formed? What is the importance of fossil fuels in the society?

Fossil fuels are natural sources of fuel that formed through geological processes. They have been
used as sources of heat and medicine by early civilizations. They remain as primary sources of
energy until today.

Fossil fuels are deposits of organisms (biomass) that are primarily used for energy generation. They
are formed millions of years ago. They form when the remains of organisms are buried under layers
of sediments immediately after they perished.

Fossil fuels were able to form because the remains of the different organisms experienced only little
to partial decomposition. Fully decomposed remains turn to humus instead.
As these sediments build up, heat and pressure increase prompting changes in the biomass. Finally,
the remains convert to the final form of fossil fuels.

Coal, crude oil, and natural gas are different types of fossil fuels. Coal is a rock-like material made
from plant matter that lived in swampy areas and is widely used as a fuel. Crude oil is unrefined
petroleum extracted from the underground reservoirs. It can be treated to form other products such
as gasoline, plastics, and tar. Natural gas is a naturally-occurring hydrocarbon gas made up of
methane and other alkanes such as butane and propane. Natural gas can be used as fuel for
cooking and generating electricity. Crude oil and natural gas are from marine organisms.

Types and Formation of Coal

 Peat is an accumulation of plant organic materials that only partially decomposed due to
exposure to water and carbon dioxide. It is recognizable due to the evidence of plant
remains and water. Peat is quite unconventional to use because it needs to be dried out and
it produces large amounts of smoke.
 Lignite is formed when increased pressure from sediments transforms peat. It still has
traces of plant remains. It is abundant but used only when more efficient fuels are
unavailable.
 Bituminous forms when even more pressure is applied to lignite. No trace of plant materials
can be observed in this stage. It is the most abundant form of coal and a major source of
heat energy.
 Anthracite is the last stage of coal formation. It has the hardest consistency among the
stages of coal. This form resulted from extreme pressure and high temperature on the layers
of sediments. Anthracite burns with a short flame and only produces a little smoke.

Crude Oil Formation

First Stage

 Marine plants and animals gather energy from the sun and their food to increase the organic
materials in their bodies.
 When they perish, their bodies sink under the ocean.

Second Stage

 The remains of the marine organisms are buried under sediments as time passes.

Third Stage

 More sediments bury the remains of marine plants and animals.

 These sediments turn into sedimentary rock after millions of years.

Fourth Stage

 The heat and pressure from the sedimentary rock slowly turn the plant and animal matter
into crude oil.
 Some of the crude oil migrate in porous rocks while others remain trapped in impermeable
rock reservoirs.
After crude oil is extracted, it undergoes different processes of refining. The most widely used
method to process crude oil is fractional distillation. Crude oil produces different oil-based
products by being heated and vaporized at different temperatures. Gas, gasoline, kerosene, diesel
oil, fuel oil, tar, and paraffin wax are all produced when crude oil undergoes fractional distillation.
Processing of crude oil also yields by-products such as petroleum jelly, fertilizers, vitamin
capsules and others. Crude oil is the most commonly used source of energy in the world.

Natural Gas Formation

Stage 1

 Microscopic plants and animals from the ocean die and sink to the bottom of the ocean.
Sediments, plants, and bacteria form layers above these organisms.

Stage 2

 Heat and pressure increases as the remains of these organisms are buried deeper by
sediments. A biomass made from plant materials and exposed to greater heat produces
natural gas.

Stage 3

 The natural gas migrates through the pores in the rocks. Some escape to the Earth’s surface
while others are caught in impermeable rocks and clays and become trapped deposits of
natural gas.

Problems with Fossil Fuels

Oil producing and exporting countries are aware that the fossil fuel supply may not last long. Fossil
fuels are non-renewable and finite resources because of the extensive process of their formation.
Several problems face the usage of fossil fuels.

 Dependence on fossil fuels may cause problems in the long run if the supply is inadequate.
 Extraction of fossil fuels has also caused different environmental problems like damaged
land.
 Coal mining disturbs the ecosystem of terrestrial lands.
 The extraction of crude oil and natural gas require structures that usually affect the marine
locations.
 Workers in coal mines and crude oil refineries experience health problems such as lung
diseases.
 The use of fossil fuels as a source of energy has produced great amounts of gaseous waste,
such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, that have contributed to global
warming.
 Transportation of crude oil can lead to oil spills that negatively affect marine life.

Explore!
Fossil fuels are continually used because of their low cost. How are fossil fuels used in your
community? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using fossil fuels in the Philippines?
Try it!
Get a map of the world’s supply of coal, oil, and natural gas. Examine the distribution and the
amount of fossil fuel around the world. Why do you think some places have an abundance of fossil
fuel supply while others have less or almost no supply of fossil fuel? What does this imply about the
areas with a large supply of fossil fuels? How about for areas with no fossil fuel reserve?

What do you think?

Fossil fuels will face a shortage of supply in the next 50 years. How can this affect the industries that
depend on fossil fuels? How can we respond to this crisis?

Key Points
 Fossil fuels are natural sources of fuel that formed through geological processes.
 Fossil fuels are deposits of organisms (biomass) that are primarily used for energy
generation.
 Coal, crude oil, and natural gas are different types of fossil fuels.
 Coal is a rock-like material made from plant matter that lived in swampy areas and is widely
used as a fuel.
 Coal has four types: peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite that differ in their features.
 Crude oil is unrefined petroleum extracted from the underground reservoirs. It is a primary
source of energy as fuel.
 Natural gas is a naturally-occurring hydrocarbon gas made up of methane and other
alkanes such as butane and propane.
 Fossil fuels are non-renewable and finite resources because of the extensive process of
their formation.

The Geothermal Energy

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how heat from inside the earth is tapped as a
source of energy.

Geothermal energy is an alternative source for energy production in the world. It is a large and
reliable source of energy, second only to fossil fuels.

How is geothermal energy being used to generate energy?

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is one of the natural resources utilized to generate power. This form of energy
usually thrives in volcanic areas such as the Pacific Ring of Fire and Iceland. It comes from the heat
that is produced inside the Earth.
For a location to have a potential of producing geothermal energy, molten rocks from volcanoes
must be able to heat groundwater or at least generate heat that can be harvested at the surface. The
energy may be used in two major ways: generation of electricity and heating of structures in
colder regions.

Generation of Electricity from Geothermal Energy

Geothermal power plants utilize the steam or heat from the Earth to generate electricity. High
temperatures vaporize water and turn it to steam. Steam is extracted because it has the energy to
turn turbines in power plants to generate electricity.

1. Groundwater reaches the areas near volcanoes. The molten rocks around these volcanoes heat
the groundwater.
2. People reach the heated groundwater by drilling wells through the ground. Steam may be directly
extracted from the well. If only heated water is available, the pressure is decreased to convert water
into steam.
3. The steam and water harvested from these wells are separated. The water is released back to the
reservoirs for the regeneration of steam.
4. The steam is sent to power plants. In these plants, the steam spins the turbines that generate
electricity.
5. The steam is condensed into water and returned to reservoirs.

Heating of Structures Directly from Geothermal Energy

Colder regions can take advantage of geothermal resources for heating purposes.

1. Houses and buildings in these locations install underground pipes that reach to the geothermal
resource.

2. During cold weather, water in these pipes is heated by the geothermal resource underground.
3. The heated water reaches the surface, and through a radiator, heat is distributed to the home or
building.
4. During hot weather, the reverse happens. The radiator collects the heat and sends cooled water
to the home or building.

Types of Geothermal Power Plants

Dry Steam Power Plants

Dry steam power plants harness energy directly from the steam ejected by the geothermal
resource. Steam from underground goes through pipes and are directed to turbines.
Flash Steam Power Plants
Flash steam power plants use heated water (more than 180 degrees) from the resource. When the
water reaches the surface, a separator segregates steam from water. The steam is directed to the
turbines.
Binary Power Plants
Binary power plants use both heated water and a solution with a low boiling point. The heated
water causes the solution to turn into steam. The steam of the solution is used to generate power
from the turbines.
Advantages of Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy is clean and renewable.

 Few chemical pollutants are released into the atmosphere. Pollutants are only expelled if the
construction of geothermal power plants is incorrect.
 Only a few wastes are generated by geothermal energy extraction. One of these wastes is
water which is actually reverted back to the geothermal source to be reused.
 Energy from geothermal sources is low in cost and maintenance. Fossil fuel plants cost
much higher than geothermal plants.
 Geothermal plants do not need a large space to be developed.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

 Geothermal energy emits water vapor into the atmosphere. Large amounts of water vapor
can cause the greenhouse effect.
 Geothermal energy is affected by temperature drops in a location, in this case, it becomes an
unreliable source of energy. If too much water is pumped to the geothermal source, the
molten rocks may be cooled off.
 Some harmful gases may be emitted by geothermal resources if the source is not managed.
Remember that these resources are near volcanoes so there is a high tendency of ejecting
volcanic gases such as sulfur dioxide.
 Geothermal energy can only be used by the location surrounding a source. It cannot be
transported for long distances.
Geothermal Energy in the Philippines
The Philippines is along the Pacific Ring of Fire where most active volcanoes are found. This feature
is an advantage in the Philippines for geothermal energy is abundant in the country because of its
location. The country is the second highest producer of geothermal energy in the world, next to the
United States of America. Geothermal energy already supplies 27% of the country’s electricity. The
Philippines still has reserves that can generate around 2000 megawatts more electricity. Aside from
providing part of the electrical power, geothermal energy in the Philippines also helps the country
save millions of dollars from purchasing fossil fuels from other countries.

Explore!
Geothermal energy can be experienced directly by humans. Hot springs are examples of geothermal
energy heating the water. The hot water in the springs can be used in flash systems to generate
electricity. Heat from geothermal resources can also be used for cooking, bathing, and heating. How
would a community be affected by a geothermal resource, such as a hot spring, near them? What
other uses can geothermal energy provide for the community? What dangers can a geothermal
resource pose to a nearby community?

What do you think?

Why is geothermal energy still not the primary resource of energy in the Philippines?

Key Points
 Geothermal energy is a resource that taps heat from inside the Earth to generate energy.
 Geothermal fields are usually located near volcanoes that have molten rocks or hot ground
around them.
 Geothermal energy can generate electricity in the following steps: extraction of steam or
heated water from the source, allowing the steam to go to power plants to move turbines and
produce electricity, and allowing the water waste to go back to the geothermal source to
regenerate steam.
 In cold countries, some buildings are heated by geothermal energy.
 There are three types of geothermal power plants system: dry steam, flash steam, and
binary system.
 The advantages of using geothermal energy include less emitted pollutants, clean and
renewable energy, and few wastes generated in processing geothermal energy.
 Geothermal energy can be disadvantageous because of a risk of emitting harmful gases to
the atmosphere. Also, it can stop providing heat if the resource is cooled down by water.
 The Philippines, which has multiple geothermal power plants, is a big producer of
geothermal energy.

The Hydroelectric Energy

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how hydroelectric energy is harnessed from
flowing water.

Due to the problems and limitations surrounding the use of fossil fuels, exploration of renewable
energy has heightened in the recent years. One of these sources of energy comes from the moving
water.

How can flowing water provide electricity? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
harnessing hydroelectric energy?

Hydroelectric Energy
Hydroelectric energy is produced by the force of moving and flowing water. It is harnessed from
water resources that have tendencies to flow or to fall from a certain height. This energy depends on
the water cycle for replenishing resources and the kinetic energy from the flow or fall of water.
Hydroelectric energy is widely used as an alternative source of energy worldwide.

Hydroelectric energy is not a newly-discovered source of energy. Ancient Romans have used it to
turn turbines that helped them grind grains. In the 1800s, flowing water provided the same function
to water mills. Water mills that functioned as grain and lumber cutters were powered by moderately
flowing water.

Harnessing Hydroelectric Energy

Ideal sources of hydroelectric energy are large, fast-flowing rivers, and waterfalls. The two main
factors considered in selecting a good source of hydroelectric energy are the flow of water (rate and
volume) and the height difference between the water source and outflow.

1. Reservoirs, such as dams, are built on rivers that have a high potential energy (flow and height).
Reservoirs increase water height and enable the water to be controlled.
2. The water from the reservoirs is channeled to the turbines in hydroelectric plants. The release of
water is controlled through the intake or inlet gates. When the inlet gates are opened, the water
flows through it into the penstock until it reaches the turbines. The penstock is a large shaft that
connects the reservoir and the power generating units (turbines and generators).
3. The energy from the flowing water turns the turbines that are connected to electric generators.
4. The turbines produce energy that spins electromagnets on the generators. The movement of the
electromagnets produces current.
5. The current is transferred to transformers through the long distance power lines or transmission
cables that store or distribute electricity.
6. Water flows out of the turbines to rivers or to other nearby water resources.
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants
Different hydroelectric power plants can be built depending on the water resource. Some
hydroelectric plants are designed for reservoirs while others can be built over rivers without the need
for reservoir constructions.

Impoundment
Impoundment is the type of hydroelectric power plant that needs a reservoir for operation. Water
released from the dam flows through the turbines. One advantage of this design is that water can be
controlled depending on electricity or water needs.

Diversion
Diversion, also known as the run-of-river, diverts some portions of a river through a small pipe or
the penstock. A weir or a small pond is required to keep the penstock submerged. The channelled
water goes straight to the powerhouse and turns the turbines to generate electricity. The used water
then returns back to the river through the tailrace – a path where the water is pumped out of the
hydroelectric power plant. This method can be used if the water resource has a low height.

Pumped Storage
Pumped storage is like a battery that stores electricity. Two reservoirs are built – top and bottom. It
stores energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. When electricity is
needed, the water from the upper reservoir is released to the lower reservoir to generate electricity.
When electric demand is low, the water in the lower reservoir is pumped back to the upper reservoir
for reuse.

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy supplies a large part of the renewable energy generated in the world. It has
advantages that make it a viable alternative for electricity production.

 Hydroelectric energy relies on water. As long as the water cycle is happening,

hydroelectric energy can continue providing power.
 Hydroelectric energy is renewable. Since water goes back to its resource through the
water cycle, water can be used again and again.
 Hydroelectric power plants are safe. They almost have no pollutants released.
 Hydroelectric power is not limited to the generation of electricity. Electricity generated
from power plants can be stored for future use.
 Hydroelectric energy provides affordable power, especially to rural areas.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy is not a perfect source of energy. Some processes involved in harnessing this
energy also cause some disadvantages or even harm to the people and the environment.

 Reservoirs can become obstacles to moving fishes. In some locations, fish ladders are
installed to help fishes in their movement.
 Dams cause floods to rivers. The floods destroy the habitat of some animals and plants.
Animals are forced to move to other places because of this.
 Turbines and generators can increase the temperature of the water. This event can
cause stress to the plants and animals inhabiting the water resources.
 People living near water resources are forced to migrate because of the change in the
landscape. This affects their livelihood and culture.
 Hydroelectricity may be cheap for the consumers but it requires a high investment for
the structures.
  Methane emissions can occur in hydroelectric power plants.
 Some hydroelectric power plants become unusable after some time if silt builds up on
the reservoirs.

Hydroelectric energy accounts for around 16% of the world’s electricity and 10% of the Philippines'.
Many countries still have to tap their potential in producing hydroelectric energy. If managed
properly, hydroelectric energy can be a more sustainable source of electricity in the long run.

Explore!
Hydroelectric power plants are distributed in different locations in the Philippines. The majority of
these power plants are situated in the mountainous regions of Benguet and in areas of Mindanao.
Recall that hydroelectric energy depends on the water cycle and gravity to be generated. What are
the possible features of these locations that enable them to be a source of hydroelectric power?

What do you think?

How do different climate patterns like El Niño and La Niña affect the production of hydroelectric
energy?

Key Points
 Hydroelectric energy is generated from the energy of flowing, moving, or falling water.
 It is one of the major alternative resources for the generation of electricity.
 Hydroelectric power depends on the flow of water and the height of the water resource.
 The steps in harnessing electricity from hydroelectric energy are as follows: building of a
reservoir; channeling of the water; energy from the water move the turbines; turbines
produce energy that spins electromagnets; the current is turned to electricity and
stored; finally, the water is directed to other water resources or back to the reservoir.
 Impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage are different types of hydroelectric plants.
 There are multiple advantages of using hydroelectric energy. These include: reliance on
water; the renewable and clean form of energy; multiple uses of hydro energy; affordable
power rates; and ability to be stored and transmitted for future use.
 Several disadvantages also cloud the use of hydroelectric energy. These include: reservoirs
as obstacles for fishes; river flooding; increase in water temperature; displacement of
animals and people from their homes; high investment capital; unusable reservoirs in the
long run; and methane emissions.

Ways to Address the Different Environmental Concerns Related to the Use of Fossil
Fuels, Geothermal Energy, and Hydroelectric Energy
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to identify and describe ways to address environmental
concerns regarding the use of fossil fuels, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy.

On your past lessons, you have learned that:

 fossil fuels are non – renewable sources of energy;

 petroleum, coal, and natural gas are types of fossil fuels which can be used in producing
electricity;

 geothermal and hydroelectric energy are renewable sources of energy;

 geothermal energy is a type of energy coming from the heat of the Earth; and

 hydroelectric energy is the energy produced from the movement of water.

Energy from fossil fuels, geothermal, and hydroelectric power plants enables people to operate
machines. From big factories to small households, these energy sources help us in accomplishing
tasks that make our lives easier. However, we must be aware that the use of these sources of
energy comes with consequences that must be addressed.

The use of fossil fuels poses a great impact in our environment including enhanced greenhouse
effect, air pollution, acid rain, and changes in the natural features of the land. Reducing the energy
consumption produced by using fossil fuels is one way to address these concerns.

Energy conservation is decreasing one’s consumption of energy which helps lessen the need for
burning fossil fuels. You can decrease your energy consumption by turning off appliances when not
in use and limiting the use of appliances.

Energy efficiency is the use of less energy but still providing the same output desired. One
example of this is the use of LED lights which require less energy but provide the same desired
output as incandescent and fluorescent bulbs. Energy efficient cars and aircrafts are also designed
and produced by manufacturers wherein modifications on its design, from its physical appearance to
its engine, require less energy but provide the same service.

Renewable sources of energy, also called as “clean sources of energy”, help lessen the effects of
fossil fuel use. Unlike fossil fuels, geothermal and hydroelectric power plants emit less air pollutants.
However, the construction of these power plants changes the natural features of the land and may
affect the living organisms that live within that area. An environmental impact assessment of building
the structures and operating the power plants can help authorities properly plan the construction and
prepare appropriate measures that will lessen the negative impacts.

If the demand for energy is reduced, the power plants will lessen their production of electricity, and
the construction of additional power plants will not be needed. Awareness to ways of energy
conservation and energy efficiency also plays a vital role in addressing these concerns.
Example
One country that has an intensive movement about energy conservation is Japan. In 2011, Japan
launched the program called Setsuden which literally means 'saving electricity'. The movement was
formulated in response to the predicted rotating blackouts due to the meltdown of Fukushima
Nuclear Power Plant. This meltdown caused the temporary shutdown of other nuclear power plants
for maintenance which contributed to the shortage of power supply in Japan.

The Japanese people responded to Setsuden movement actively. The public and media sector of
the country helped in spreading tips on how to conserve energy. They helped each other in the
dissemination of posters and placement of advertisements to increase awareness on saving
electricity. The government even passed policies about restriction of energy consumption and
together with the efforts of the citizens, blackouts were prevented successfully throughout the span
of the movement. This movement also pushed the Japanese officials to shift to the use of renewable
sources of energy.

Try it!
Imagine that you are part of a thinking committee of the Department of Energy and you were tasked
by the department secretary to formulate a campaign about energy conservation. Your campaign
must have a creative title to catch the attention of the people. You also need to make an attractive
poster that shows ways on how to conserve energy.

What do you think?

Why do we need to address the environmental concerns caused by the use of fossil fuels,
geothermal energy, and hydroelectric energy?

Key Points
 Energy conservation and energy efficiency will help lessen the bad effects of fossil fuel use.

 Awareness of the people about energy conservation and energy efficiency plays a vital role
in dealing with the environmental concerns about the use of fossil fuels, geothermal energy,
and hydroelectric energy.

 The use of renewable energy causes minimal damage to the environment than the use of
fossil fuels.

 Geothermal energy and hydroelectric energy may be referred to as clean sources of energy
but can also pose environmental concerns.

How Water is Distributed on Earth

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to recognize how water is distributed on Earth.

Around 71% of the Earth’s surface is water. Given this large percentage, why do we still face
the crisis of lack of potable water?

Water can be found in different locations worldwide and takes diverse forms. Recall what your world
map looks like. If you point at a random place on the map, your finger will have a higher chance of
landing on an ocean than on land. This is because most of the water on Earth is found in the
oceans.

(Source: http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html)

The oceans account for around 96.5% of all the water on Earth. Imagine all that water! However,
water in the oceans is saltwater. It cannot be used as drinking water for animals and plants because
of its high salt content. But one might ask, “Why not extract potable water from the saltwater?” The
answer? The extraction of potable water from seawater needs a great amount of energy. It is not
economical to do, which is why we only make use of freshwater.

Only two and one-half percent (2.5%) of the Earth’s water is freshwater and only 1.2%(surface
water) of this is accessible to us. Most of the freshwater are contained in the glaciers and polar
caps found in the North and South Poles that hold 68.7% of all the freshwater. On the other
hand, 30.1% of the remaining freshwater is groundwater — the source of water of springs and
wells. Groundwater can be found by digging through the soil and finding the water table, which is the
boundary of an aquifer. Not all people can utilize this source.

Surface water can be mostly found in ground ice and permafrost (69%) and 20.9% is found
in lakes. The rivers hold a small portion (0.49%) of the surface water, but they are our major source
of water.
Freshwater can also be found in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, as well as in living
things that makes up 0.26% of the total surface freshwater.

Other forms of freshwater come from swamps and marshes (2.6%), and 3.9% accounts for soil
moisture.

Explore!
Observe your community. What bodies of water can you find in your community? Is it a source of
freshwater? How do the bodies of water in your area affect the way of living in your place?

Try it!
Get a map of the Philippines. List down major freshwater sources found in our country. Are all these
bodies of water readily available for use and are considered as a source of potable water?

What do you think?

With the limited amount of water that can be used by humans and animals, what are the things that
you can do to conserve water and its sources?

Key Points
 The water of the Earth is unevenly distributed.
 The oceans account 96.5% of all the water on Earth.
 About 2.5% of all the water is freshwater, but only 1.2% of this is accessible to us.
 Around 23 of freshwater are locked in the ice caps and glaciers.

The Various Water Resources on Earth

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify various water resources on Earth.

In the previous lesson, you’ve learned about the distribution of water on Earth. Recall that only 2.5%
of the Earth’s water is freshwater while 96.5% are saltwater. In this lesson, you will explore the
different water resources around the earth.

Can you imagine if these water resources suddenly stopped providing us with the water we
need?

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. They exist in different
forms and locations. Almost all of the bodies of water, saltwater and freshwater, can be considered
resources.
Oceans

Oceans are the largest reservoirs of water in the world. Even if the water in the oceans is saltwater,
they can still be considered as resources. Besides their importance to marine creatures, oceans can
also serve as the source of drinking water, though the process of extraction can be too costly to be
efficient.

Glaciers

Glaciers contain most of the freshwater reserves on Earth. Even when these reserves cannot be
extracted in large amounts, they can still be melted and used as potable water in the Arctic regions.
Glacial melt also supplies water to the different rivers in the cold regions of Asia during summer.
Some countries are able to use the glacial melt for hydroelectric-generated power.

Rivers and Streams

Rivers and streams comprise 0.49% of the freshwater supply. They provide potable water, serve as
habitat for aquatic plants and animals, and supply irrigation water.

Lakes

Lakes are inland bodies of water entirely surrounded by land connected to rivers and underground
seepage. They provide usable water and serve as habitats for plants and animals. Some of them are
used in aquaculture. For instance, Laguna de Bay, Philippine’s largest freshwater lake, houses over
1% of the global farmed fishes.

Groundwater

Groundwater can be found underground when one digs deep enough to cross the water table. The
water table is the boundary between the soil and the aquifer (usually rocks or soil) that stores the
groundwater.

Groundwater may either come from the rain or may have been stored underground for many years.
It supplies water to households, industries, and agriculture. It is often the main source of potable
water and is also used as the water supply of firefighters.

Man-made reservoirs
Some locations in the world have difficulties in their water resources, especially during dry seasons.
Dams are built by humans to function as water reserves. Dams, like other natural water resources,
can provide water for the communities.

Explore!
Water is involved in almost all of your daily activities including drinking, taking a bath, and washing
your clothes. Can you trace where your water comes from?

Try it!
Find a map of your region. Look at the water resources and list down the products that these water
resources provide. Draw a product map of your region based on your list.

What do you think?

It is predicted that by the year 2025, many countries will suffer from lack of freshwater supply. What
are the possible reasons for the water shortage in 2025?

Key Points
 Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful.
 Water resources provide potable water, serve as habitat for aquatic plants and animals, and
supply irrigation water.
 Oceans are the largest reservoirs of water in the world.
 Glaciers contain most of the freshwater reserves on Earth. Even when these reserves
cannot be extracted in large amounts, they can still be melted and used as potable water.
 Rivers and streams comprise 0.49% of the freshwater supply.
 Lakes are inland bodies of standing water that provide usable water and serve as habitats
for plants and animals.
 Groundwater, which may either come from the rain or may have been stored underground
for many years, is the main source of potable water used by many households.
 Man-made reservoirs such as dams are built by humans to function as water reserves.

How Different Activities Affect the Quality and Availability of Water

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how different activities affect the quality and
availability of water.
Water resources provide humans their daily water needs. Even with numerous water resources,
there is still an unfortunate chance that some countries will have inadequate access to water in the
future. Human activities are contributing to the water problems of the world.

What human activities affect the water resources?

Water resources around the world are threatened because of human activities. In the Philippines,
many rivers and other water resources have been declared as biologically dead. Biologically dead
means the water resources have inadequate oxygen. In effect, they cannot sustain life. For instance,
the Pasig River, a major water resource in Metro Manila, was declared biologically dead in the
1990s.

Effects of Agricultural Activities

Agriculture is a major consumer of water resources, but some agricultural activities have adverse
effects on these resources. Irrigation diverts water from these sources to fields causing the water
resources to shrink. A devastating effect on agriculture was observed in the Aral Sea of Central Asia.
The lake has been shrinking since 1960 due to the construction of poorly-planned irrigation canals
from its tributary rivers. Salt and fertilizers from the fields can also reach the rivers through irrigation
channels. They can also enter the soil and cause contamination of groundwater which eventually
flows into rivers and streams.

Effect of Aquaculture
Aquacultures also affect the quality of water. Aquacultures are the cultivation of aquatic animals
and plants for food. Wastes from fish pens remain in the water while fishes from overpopulated pens
use up more oxygen causing a decrease in water quality.

Effects of Groundwater Extraction

Excessive extraction of groundwater causes the water table to sink. As the water table descends,
sediments can contaminate the water. Saltwater can intrude from nearby oceans. Also, the
groundwater cannot supply water to other water resources. In the western part of Metro Manila,
saltwater intrusion has already occurred because of excessive groundwater extraction.

Effects of Urbanization and Landscape Change

Urban growth affects the water resources too. Cities with small land areas but big demands resort
to land reclamation — filling up bodies of water with sand, gravel, and other materials to add to the
land area. This causes water to be less accessible. Landscaping also affects the water quality and
availability. Deforestation minimizes the capability of the ground to sustain water because of the
lack of soil and roots of plants that hold water.

Effects of Pollution
Pollution has been a major problem for many years. Wastes from industries, such as pesticides,
pollute the water systems. Mining wastes, such as radioactive materials, can leak into water sources
if the disposal system of the site is poor. Oil spills from boats greatly affect marine life and water
quality in the oceans.

Effects of Individual Activities

It may seem harmless to throw liquid wastes such as used cooking oil, strong detergents, and motor
oil down the drains. But these wastes actually cause more harm because the drainage leads to
water resources. Sewage of some homes goes directly into the rivers and lakes. Pasig River, once a
center of trade and transportation, became the disposal site from the communities connected to it.
Cleaning of the river is ongoing, but full rehabilitation will take years.

Explore!
Solid wastes collected from your homes are usually disposed at sanitary landfills. In what ways can
these solid wastes affect the water resources?

Try it!
Imagine you have a fish tank at home. What will happen if the tank has not been cleaned for weeks
and there is no air pump oxygenating the water? How can you relate this to human activities
affecting the water resources?

What do you think?

If you were given a chance to become a president for one day, what activities will you do to correct
the different human activities which have adverse effects on the quality of water resources (e.g. the
Pasig River)?

Key Points
 Water quality and availability are being threatened by different human activities.
 Some agricultural activities, such as irrigation and aquaculture, contribute to the decrease
in quality and availability of water.
 Excessive groundwater extraction affects the supply of water to different water resources.
 Urbanization, industrialization, and landscape changes cause some water resources to
be subjected to land reclamation, making them unavailable for use.
 Pollution have been affecting water resources for a long time and have negative effects on
the life supported by these water resources.
 Individual activities like throwing wastes in our drainage systems pollute our water
resources.

Ways of Conserving and Protecting Water Resources

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to learn and formulate ways of conserving and
protecting water resources.
What steps can we take to ensure the sustenance of the different water resources? In what
ways can our water resources be conserved and protected?

Water resources supply the daily needs of humans. That is why it is imperative to protect and
conserve these resources not just for our present need but also for securing water availability in the
future.

Conservation of Water Resources

Conservation of water refers to the meaningful and planned manner of water usage. The word
conservation comes from the Latin words con meaning together and servare meaning to guard or to
keep.

Importance of Conserving Water

Water conservation is everyone’s responsibility. Why is it important to conserve water? The two
general factors that drive us to conserve water are the increase in demand and waste production.

 The increase in the population creates more demand for water not only for domestic use but
also for agricultural and industrial purposes. The greater demand causes a decrease in the
water supply that is used to sustain the growing population.

 The increase in waste production may lead to water pollution that causes a decline in water
quality and availability.

Simply put, conserving water is important because there is more demand for water that should be
sustained, and less available water due to the increase in waste production.

Ways to Conserve Water Resources

The agriculture sector accounts for around 85% of the water usage in the Philippines. The remaining
15% is used by households and industries.

In Agriculture
 The use of flooding as a common irrigation practice must be avoided and replaced with drip
or sprinkler irrigation system.
 The drip irrigation system refers to the direct application of water onto the root zone through
outlets or nozzles.
 The sprinkler irrigation system refers to the application of water above the crops in the form
of spray like rain.

In Households
 The efficient use and reuse of water contribute to water conservation.
 About 20% of the water in households is used as drinking water, and the remaining 80% is
used for washing and flushing.
 Instead of making the water flow continuously in the faucet, use proper containers when
washing clothes, doing the dishes, and brushing your teeth.
 Laundry water can be reused to flush toilets.
 Recycling of water sewage is one way of conserving that 80% water usage.
In Industries
 Industrial waste water requires treatment procedures to remove toxic substances and
impurities.
 Recycling and reuse of water will reduce the demand for a new water supply in the industrial
waste water.

Protection of Water Resources

Protection of water resources makes water more sustainable for future use by protecting them from
any form of wastes and pollution. It involves all of its beneficiaries. Like water conservation, sectors
in agriculture, households, and industries also have responsibilities in protecting these resources.

In Households
 Dispose chemicals properly. Do not throw them in the drains for these cause major pollutions
in the water resources.
 Households near waterways should not throw their solid wastes in the water sources.
 Drainages must be kept clean.

In Agriculture
 Wastes from animals in farms can be converted to compost or processed to produce natural
gas.
 Irrigation canals must be planned well to avoid pollution and salinization from the fields.
 Aquaculture farmers must periodically clean their farms so that wastes will not reach other
water resources.

In Industries
 Materials from construction sites must be kept away from drainages. Sand, cement, and
paint may be washed away to these drainages.
 Mining companies must check their wastes disposal systems (e.g. tailings pond) to ensure
that leak from accidents will not lead to water resources.
 Oil spills in the oceans must be acted upon immediately to avoid destruction of the
ecosystem and to prevent further decline of water quality.

Explore!
Observe the activities in your home and school. Identify which activities show the conservation and
protection of water resources.

Try it!
Think of other ways to conserve and preserve water resources. Design a poster/flyer raising
awareness on water conservation and protection for your community or your school. You may want
to display your poster/flyer in your school or in your community.
What do you think?
What impact do the actions of one individual have on the conservation and protection of water
resources?

Key Points
 As the crisis on water is looming, conservation and protection of water resources is
important.
 Conservation and protection of water involves all users: households, agriculture, and
industries.
 Conservation of water refers to the meaningful and planned manner of water usage.
 Two general factors of why it is important to conserve water are the increase in demand and
waste production.
 Recycling and reusing water are some ways in conserving water.
 Protection of water resources makes water more sustainable for future use.

Human Activities That Affect the Quality and Quantity of Soil

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to identify human activities that affect the quality and
quantity of soil.

What activities affect the quality and quantity of soil and how do these activities affect it?

Factors Affecting Soil Quality and Quantity

Human activities affect the quality and quantity of soil. Some activities cause its quality to diminish
while some affect the amount of soil available. Other activities can even affect both the quality and
quantity of soil.

Agriculture
Most agricultural activities depend on soil but these activities could cause detrimental
effects. Excessive farming causes the soil to lose nutrients fast. After some time, the soil may not
be able to sustain plant life anymore because of nutrient loss. Fertilizers and pesticides used in
farming may harm the soil because chemicals in them can kill the microorganisms that help the soil
be fertile.

Irrigation could cause soil salinization if the saltwater intruded the irrigation canals. Salinized soil
cannot support most plant life because of its toxicity to plants. Deforestation for farming renders the
soil more susceptible to erosion. Crops provide less anchorage than trees which could lead to soil
erosion. In some countries, deforestation is done to widen the grazing fields for
livestock. Overgrazing could cause the loss of plant cover making the soil susceptible to erosion.
Construction, Development, and Mining
Infrastructures connected to construction, land development, and industries affect the soil
negatively. Sometimes, the land needs to be leveled to accommodate buildings, and this causes the
topsoil to be stripped off. The construction processes also affect the soil due to the materials that
render the soil infertile. Land development has a great impact on soil because some development
includes the reclassification of land. This causes the arable land to be converted to industrial land.
These events could make the soil less productive for agriculture. Mining activities also cause the
destruction of the soil. Quarrying and strip mining cause the soil to be exposed to weathering and
erosion agents. Chemicals used in mining can also cause soil sterilization. Oil disposed on soil by
industries can affect plant growth.

Waste Disposal
Industries, mining, and households produce wastes daily. Waste disposal affects the quality of the
soil. Though mining wastes are supposedly contained, improperly planned disposal sites can lead
to contamination and acidification of the soil. Households and industries usually resort to landfills for
their wastes. Landfills are natural or excavated holes intended for garbage disposal. Decomposition
of wastes and the spillage of the chemicals from landfills can cause soil sterilization. Soil
sterilization kills potential pathogenic microorganisms as well as the beneficial ones. Consequently,
this process has a negative impact on the biological equilibrium that thrives within the soil which in
the long run, would degrade soil fertility. Improperly disposed wastes by households can lead to
soil poisoning due to harmful contents present in the waste materials. These wastes also prevent the
growth of plants on the soil.

Explore
Observe your community. What human activities in your area affect the soil? What possible
interventions can be done to slow down the impacts these activities have on the soil of your
community?

Try it!
Research about the nearest landfill in your area. What other negative effects do landfills have on the
environment?

What do you think?

How will further soil degradation affect the economy of the Philippines and how can this be
prevented?

Key Points
 Soil is an important resource for humans. Its uses include agricultural, industrial, and others.
 The soil faces the problem of degradation of quality and quantity due to different human
activities that adversely affect it.
  Agriculture can affect the soil through salinization of the soil due to irrigation, excessive
farming, deforestation for farming, and overgrazing of livestock.
 Industries can affect the soil by exposing the soil to erosion because of activities such
as excavation and stripping of the topsoil.
 Some industrial wastes can make the soil barren.
 Improper waste disposal causes some waste to affect the soil by causing sterilization.
 Waste disposal at landfills can also cause erosion and sterilization.

Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Soil for Future Generations

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future
use.

The soil is one of the natural resources that provide humans with multiple benefits. However, its
quantity and quality are declining due to some human activities.

How can soil be conserved and protected from degradation?

Soil Conservation Methods

 Crop rotation is a farming method where different crops are planted in the same soil in
different seasons. For example, a farm that is planted with root crops will be planted with
another type of crop in the next season. This method allows the soil to regain nutrients loss
from a nutrient demanding crop.
 Contour farming involves plowing and planting across the slope of an inclined soil resource.
Instead of planting parallel to the slope, contour farming involves tilling the land
perpendicular to the slope to prevent tillage erosion. Tillage erosion is the movement of the
soil caused by cultivating a plot of land.
 Crop protection and mulching cover the soil with either plant (crop protection) or
hay/straws (mulching). The plants and the mulch prevent soil from going into the passing
water.
 Strip farming alternates the species of plants farmed in an area. Alternating crops prevent
massive soil
 erosion. 

 Terracing is also a farming technique that breaks hillside slopes into smaller parts. The
hillside is contoured to resemble stairs. The wide landing of each step in the soil resource
serves as the field for
 farmers. 

 Grassed waterways are usually established in irrigation canals. The grasses on the

waterways prevent soil erosion when irrigation water is distributed to the fields.

Soil Protection Methods

The principles of soil protection aim to maintain the quality of the soil. Protection from the impact of
human activities must be applied. Pollutants must be prevented from entering the soil. Plant covers
are usually encouraged to avoid the degradation of soil quality.

 Cover cropping involves the planting of small plants in barren or unplanted fields. The cover
of the fields protects the soil from possible erosion.
 Proper waste disposal helps in soil protection because unnecessary wastes are prevented
from having contact with soil. Properly composting biodegradable materials instead of mixing
these wastes help enrich the soil. Also, proper disposal of wastes prevents the build-up of
harmful chemicals from decomposing wastes.
  Reduction in wastes helps in soil protection. If wastes are managed properly to produce
fewer wastes, fewer landfills will be needed. With fewer landfills needed, fewer land
resources will be disturbed and used as landfills.
 Reduction in use of chemicals is an important method to keep the soil from getting sterile.
 Reforestation helps in protecting soil resource from elements of erosion. It provides
permanent plant cover for the soil to avoid erosion. This method is a long-term solution for
soil resource protection.

Explore
What activities in your households, in your community, and in your school help in soil conservation
and protection? How do these activities affect the soil resources?

Try it!
Construct a presentation (video, media gallery, slide presentation) about soil conservation. Include
the reasons why the soil resources must be saved and give examples of soil conservation and
protection methods.

What do you think?

In what ways can soil conservation and protection methods negatively affect the ecosystem of an
area?

Key Points
 The soil is a non-renewable natural resource. Soil resources are in danger of destruction due
to human activities.
 Soil conservation methods include crop rotation, contour farming, crop protection, mulching,
strip farming, terracing, and waterway grassing.
 Soil protection methods include cover cropping of barren land, proper waste disposal from
different sectors, prevention of chemical waste disposal in soil resources, and reforestation.
 Soil conservation and protection are responsibilities of all humans because everyone
benefits from soil resources.

How People Generate Different Types of Waste

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how people generate different types of
waste as they make use of various materials and resources in everyday life.

What forms of wastes are produced by humans? How are these wastes generated with daily
activities of man?
Learn about it!
Wastes are generated on a regular basis. Many human activities involve the production of wastes.
They could come from different sources such as mining sites, households, commercial
establishments, and institutes.

Different Types of Wastes

Solid Wastes
Solid wastes are considered as the most common and most abundant type of wastes. They may be
in the form of food refuse, paper, plastics, wood, ashes, rubber, and metals. They are generated
from different human activities.

Examples
 Disposal of excess food causes the generation of food refuse. Surprisingly, it constitutes a
large percentage of solid wastes even if there is a global problem on hunger.
 Paper wastes come from businesses and homes as well. As a person uses more paper,
more wastes are generated.
 A newspaper can be useful for a day but is usually disposed of when out of date.
 When a person consumes pre-packaged products, solid wastes are generated. The excess
packaging of products, such as food, electronics, and furniture, contribute to the great
amount of paper and plastic wastes.
 Constructions of different structures also contribute to other types of solid wastes such as
wood, cement, rubbers, metals, and ashes.

Liquid Wastes
Liquid wastes usually come in the forms of wastewater, fats, oil and grease, household fluids,
and mechanical oil. They are regularly generated because of constant human activities. More
wastewater is generated as people use excess water in activities such as household and industrial
cleaning, watering of plants, and feeding animals.

Examples
 Cooking using oils and lard contribute to liquid waste production.
 Bleaches, liquid detergents, and insecticides that are disposed of in drains are also liquid
wastes.
 Disposed mechanical oils from car repair shops and car manufacturing sites also contribute
to liquid wastes.
Gaseous Wastes
Carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, methane, sulfur oxides, and aerosols are the most common
type of gaseous wastes. They are usually produced through combustion of different materials. Many
of the materials we use are produced in facilities that emit these gaseous wastes.

Examples
 A person’s use of materials such as plastics and metals indirectly contribute to the increase
of gaseous wastes in the atmosphere.
 Improper garbage disposal of households, industries, and commercial institutions promotes
methane production.
 Use of hairsprays and aerosols at home add to the gaseous wastes in the atmosphere.
 Garbage incineration produces harmful carbon oxides.
 Automobile usage is one of the major sources of carbon monoxide wastes.
 Using electricity has a part in generating gaseous wastes due to the fossil fuels used in the
production of power.

Solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes are constantly generated in the world. Human activities are the
primary source of these wastes. If not properly managed, excessive wastes could cause a wide
array of problems not only for the environment, but also for the human health as well.

Explore!
From the moment you get out of bed to prepare for school, you do several activities. How do your
activities contribute to the generation of wastes?

Try it!
Keep all the wrappers of everything you buy, from school supplies, food, and even things you need
at home. How many wastes do you get in a week? What can you do about the personal wastes that
you generate so that they could be lessened?

What do you think?

How can unmanaged amounts of waste affect the health of the environment and of humans?
Key Points
 Wastes are generated through daily human activities.
 Urbanization has a direct correlation on the amount of wastes produced per person.
 Wastes may be classified as solid, liquid, or gaseous wastes.
 Solid wastes contain little to no fluids. The largest contributor to solid wastes is paper,
followed by food scraps.
 Packaging of products is the main source of paper and plastic wastes.
 Wastewater from households and business constitute a large percentage of liquid wastes.
 Gaseous wastes include carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, methane, sulfur oxides, and
aerosols.
 Exhaust from factories and automobiles are large contributors for gaseous wastes in the
world.
 Biodegradable wastes thrown at landfills usually cause amounts of methane to be
produced.

How Different Types of Waste Affect People’s Health and the Environment

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how different types of waste affect people’s
health and the environment.

Different types of waste are generated on a regular basis. Wastes can be in the form of solid, liquid,
and gaseous wastes.

How do these wastes affect the environment and the health of the people?

The increase in the population of the world causes an increase in the amount of wastes generated.
Large amounts of wastes need to be properly disposed of every day. If these wastes are not
properly managed and disposed, they will have negative effects not only in the environment, but also
in the health of the people.

Solid waste is the most abundant type of waste. It may be in the form of food refuse, paper,
plastics, wood, ashes, rubber, and metals. Liquid waste usually come in the form of wastewater.
Fats, oil and grease, household fluids, and mechanical oil are some of its examples.
Finally, gaseous waste is usually produced from the combustion of different materials. The most
common examples include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, sulfur oxides, and aerosols.

Effects of the Different Types of Wastes on the Environment

Several effects on the environment are caused by the different types of wastes that are generated by
human activities. Some of them cause irreversible effects like the destruction of marine life or the
production of greenhouse gases that has a direct effect on the ecosystem.
Solid Wastes

 Solid wastes end up in waterways that pollute water resources.

 Floods are caused by improperly disposed wastes that block the drainages.
 Some non-biodegradable wastes can reach the oceans. Marine animals sometimes see
them as food and ingest these wastes. Sometimes, these wastes affect the growth of marine
animals.

Liquid Wastes

 Liquid wastes from solid wastes and chemicals produce leachate that seeps through the soil
and water. It causes soil sterilization and water pollution.
 Run-offs from farms that reach coasts, rivers, and lakes cause
eutrophication. Eutrophication happens when excess nutrients such as nitrates and
phosphorus go into water resources. These compounds cause algal blooms that overcrowd
the water surface.
 Chemical wastes and eutrophication due to run-offs both cause fish kills and death of other
organisms.

Gaseous Wastes

 Gas exhausts from automobiles and factories cause acid rain when these wastes combine
with the rain. Acid rain destroys plants, buildings, and livelihoods. They also contaminate
the soil and water resources.
 Methane from decomposing solid wastes contributes to greenhouse gases.
 Chlorofluorocarbons from gaseous wastes cause the depletion of the ozone layer.
The ozone layer is important because it protects us from the harmful rays of the sun.

Effects of Different Types of Wastes on People’s Health

Waste products do not only affect our health directly but also affect us through the environment. The
effects may vary from diseases to poisoning and even death.

Solid Wastes

 Solid wastes contaminate water resources. The contaminated water may

cause gastrointestinal diseases.
 People residing near landfills experience skin diseases due to continuous contact with
wastes.
 Solid wastes, especially biodegradable ones, attract rodents and flies that bring various
diseases to people.

Liquid Wastes

 Liquid wastes such as mercury from mines and hospitals cause poisoning in humans when
they consume mercury-contaminated fishes.
 Shellfish contamination due to algal blooms may cause poisoning in humans when
consumed.
  Strong chemicals that make up some liquid wastes distress the reproductive systems of
humans, especially those of males.
 Water poisoning also threatens humans because of liquid wastes in water resources.

Gaseous Wastes

 Gaseous wastes in the atmosphere are one of the primary causes of respiratory
diseases in humans.
 Some of these wastes increase cancer risks and lung weakening.
 Carbon monoxide, generated from exhausts, can cause neurological dysfunctions and
even death.

Explore!
Severe rains flooded some of the fields and houses in a community. Water from the fields was
drained to a lake nearby. This lake is the source of fishes and water for the whole community. After a
week, tons of fishes were seen floating in the lake. Some residents also experienced gastrointestinal
problems after drinking water from the lake. Using the concepts learned in this lesson, what could
have caused these outcomes?

Try it!
Observe the leaves of plants in these locations: school grounds, yard at home, near the main road,
and parks. What do you notice about the leaves? How can the leaf features possibly reflect the
quality of the environment where a plant grows?

What do you think?

How can the negative effects of different wastes on the environment and the people’s health be
prevented, if not, minimized?

Key Points
 Waste amounts are continuously increasing with the rise of the human population.
 Wastes cause negative effects on the environment and human health. These effects are
amplified when wastes are mismanaged and improperly disposed.
 Solid wastes cause different problems to the environment such as the production of
methane, pollution of waterways, flooding, and ingestion by marine animals.
 Liquid wastes such as leachates contaminate the soil and water. Some liquid wastes from
farm run-offs cause eutrophication leading to the death of freshwater and marine animals.
 Gaseous wastes contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer. They also cause acid
rain that harms the soil and water resources.
 Solid wastes also affect human health. They may cause water contamination that leads
to gastrointestinal diseases; attract pests that bring various diseases; and nearby landfills
with decomposing solid wastes can cause skin diseases in humans.
  Liquid wastes also contaminate water resources that makes water poisonous to
humans. Mercury from wastes are toxic to humans. Some chemical wastes affect the
reproductive systems of humans.
 Gaseous wastes cause majority of the respiratory diseases in humans. Some of these
wastes can also cause neurological disorders and even death.

Ways of Reducing the Production of Waste at Home, in School, and around the
Community

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to cite ways of reducing the production of waste at
home, in school, and around the community.

How can each of us contribute to the reduction of wastes?

Waste Reduction
Reduction of wastes is the most effective means of managing waste generation around the world.
It results to fewer wastes and decreases the chance of causing harm to the environment and the
health of the people.

The three R’s namely, reduce, reuse, and recycle, are some of the ways of reducing wastes. The
best way is to reduce the amount of waste by not using unnecessary materials. Reusing and
recycling materials such as papers, plastics, and glasses can also minimize the amount of waste
that will be disposed.

Reduction of Waste at Home

The waste reduction must begin at home. When a member of a household is properly educated on
waste reduction, one can apply what was learned in different times and situations.

 Buy items that have less packaging. It is better to buy items in bulk because retailed items
have more packaging.
 Plan home meals. Having an estimate of the amount of needed food results in fewer food
scraps.
 Lessen paper wastes at home. Use both sides of paper when writing or printing. Reuse
paper as wrappers or paper bags.
 Invest in high-quality and durable products. It is cheaper and less wasteful to use high-
quality products in the long run than constantly buying cheap and unreliable products.
 Invest in reusable diapers, grocery bags, and food containers. Using reusable items
minimize the wastes from their disposable counterparts.
 Minimize car usage. Family members may be dropped off by one car instead of using
multiple cars. Less gaseous wastes will be generated when doing carpools.
Reduction of Wastes in School
Schools can aid in the reduction of wastes by being exemplary educators and provide support in
practicing waste reduction.

 Use reusable utensils in the school canteen instead of disposable ones.

 Bury the biological wastes from the school canteen in a compost instead of sending them
to landfills.
 Donate or sell unwanted books from the library.
 Use recycled materials for school projects and props for school events.
 Use digital media, if possible, instead of paper media.
 Use both sides of paper for notices and school documents.
 Intensify the information campaign in school regarding the reduction of wastes.

Reduction of Wastes in the Community

The waste reduction must become a culture of the community. This practice would aid in the
management of wastes in the community. If efforts are sufficient, the amount of wastes generated
would be minimal.

 Follow the ordinances about waste reduction and management.

 Segregate the generated wastes. Bury biodegradable wastes in compost. Send the
recyclable materials to the community’s recovery facility.
 Use public transportation systems more often than private vehicles. Mass
transportation will lessen carbon emissions from automobiles.
 Avoid incineration of wastes to prevent generation of poisonous gaseous wastes.
 Help in disseminating information about waste reduction and management.

Why should wastes be reduced?

Reduction of wastes prevents depletion of natural resources and destruction of the environment. For
example, when less paper is needed and used, a fewer number of trees have to be cut and
deforestation is prevented.

Waste reduction also lessens the negative effects of wastes on human health. For instance, flood,
which increases the transmission of water-borne diseases such as typhoid fever and leptospirosis,
can be prevented when solid wastes that clog waterways are minimized.

Explore!
Issa helps her mother shop for their household needs. In the coming weekend, they will be
celebrating a birthday party for her sister, Trinity. What suggestions or actions can she do to ensure
that the preparation for the party and the party itself will generate fewer wastes?

Try it!
Ask your school administration and local community about their projects regarding waste reduction.
Compare and contrast their projects and observe the success of each project.
What do you think?
Will human efforts on waste reduction be enough to reverse the effects of wastes on the
environment and on human health?

Key Points
 Reduction of waste is one of the keys to lessen the wastes in the environment.
 The 3R’s namely, reduce, reuse, and recycle, provide a framework for waste
management. Reduction is most effective way of managing waste followed by reusing and
then recycling.
 Numerous ways can be done by different sectors to contribute to the reduction of wastes.
 Waste reduction can be implemented at home by purchasing products with minimal
packaging, meal planning, using quality materials, utilizing reusable materials, and
minimizing car usage.
 Schools can also contribute to waste reduction. Schools can encourage a paperless
environment. Canteens in school can use reusable utensils instead of disposable packaging.
 The community can be a center of waste reduction. Community leaders must implement
ordinances and incentives for the promotion of waste reduction. Communities must also set
examples in proper waste management for their constituents.
 Waste reduction is important to prevent the negative environmental and human health
impacts wastes have.
 If waste amounts are successfully and significantly reduced, natural disasters such as
flooding can be prevented. Health risks will be lower. Nature will also have the time to heal
itself from the negative impacts of wastes.

Earth Processes
7 topics70 questions

Topics under this unit

 Geologic Processes on Earth’s Surface

 Geologic Processes Inside the Earth
 Metamorphism and Its Effects in Rock Formation
 The Internal Structure of Earth
 Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift Theory and Its Evidence
 The Seafloor Spreading
 The Formation of Faults and Folds

Geologic Processes on Earth’s Surface

Objectives
At the end of the class discussion, you will be able to describe how rocks undergo different
processes of weathering and explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion
and deposition.

The Earth is constantly changing through the years. According to the Continental Drift Theory
proposed by Alfred Wegener, the Earth was once a giant landmass called Pangaea. This giant
landmass was broken down into several continents because of the movement beneath the Earth’s
surface.

If continents came from a giant landmass, can you imagine how the mountains, volcanoes,
and soil are formed?

Shaping the Earth’s surface involves a geological process called weathering. Weathering is the
process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.

Different Types of Weathering

All rocks undergo weathering, and it takes a long period. There are three different types of rock
weathering: mechanical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

 Mechanical weathering is a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces
without changing its chemical composition due to different temperatures and water. Rocks in
the highway develop cracks and small fractures because of too much exposure to heat. This
activity is an example of mechanical weathering.

 Chemical weathering is a process wherein rock materials are changed into other
substances that have different physical and chemical compositions. Some agents of
chemical weathering include water, strong acids, and oxygen. Water hydrates and breaks
the minerals in the rocks through the process of hydrolysis. Oxygen combines with metals to
produce oxides while acids from vents and volcanoes increase the speed of weathering
process. One example of chemical weathering in rocks is when rainwater hydrolyzed the
feldspar minerals to form clay minerals.

 Biological weathering is a process when living things, such as insects and roots of the
trees, contribute to the disintegration of rock materials. For example, mosses and fungi that
grow on rocks produce weak acids that can destroy or dissolve the rocks.

Erosion
Erosion is the transportation of weathered rocks. Agents like running water or rivers, wind, gravity,
groundwater, wave currents, and glaciers contribute to erosion.

Types of Erosion
 Water erosion is a type of erosion where the water carries the sediments to different parts of
the bodies of water such as rivers.
  Wind erosion happens when light materials, such as small rocks and pebbles, are carried
by wind to different places.

 Glacial erosion happens when the ice moves downhill and plucks out chunks of rocks and
causes scraping between the ice and the rock. Plucking and scraping can lead to the
development of other landforms if, for example, the glaciers hit a mountain and erode it.

 Soil erosion happens when the top soil is removed and leaves the soil infertile. This is
caused by wind or flood in an area.

Deposition
Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final destination. The
depositional environment can be continental, coastal, or marine.

 Continental includes streams, swamps, caves, and deserts.

 Coastal includes lagoons, estuaries, and deltas.
 Marine includes slopes and bottom of the ocean or abyssal zone.

Explore!
Our country is a pathway of typhoons because of our location in the globe. The government always
warns us, especially those who reside near the slopes or low-lying areas, to evacuate immediately
when this happens. Given the different types of erosion you have learned, particularly soil erosion,
what would you suggest that the government should do to minimize the devastating effects of this
erosion?

Try it!
Take a tour in a nearby river. Observe the different types of rocks that you will see and take note of
their physical characteristics. What can you say about those rocks?

What do you think?

Why do you think is it necessary for the rocks to undergo the process of weathering?

Key Points
 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.
 Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks downslope from the original place of weathering.
 Deposition is the laying down of sediments to its depositional environment or final
destination.

Geologic Processes Inside the Earth

Objectives
At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from,

 describe how magma is formed (magmatism), and
 describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and volcanism).

The layers of the Earth include the crust, the mantle, and the core. The core is the hottest layer of
the Earth. The heat coming from this layer is responsible for all geological activities happening on
our planet. Volcanoes, mountains, and continents were formed because of this internal heat.

Why is the core layer hot?

Internal Heat of the Earth

The Earth has three main layers: the crust or the outermost layer, the mantle or the middle layer,
and the core or the innermost layer.

 The crust is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all known life forms on Earth.
 The mantle is made up of mostly solid rocks and minerals but have areas of semi-solid
magma.
 The core is made up of dense metal, specifically, nickel and iron. It is also considered as the
center and the hottest part of the Earth.

Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the crust.
The temperature of the mantle varies depending whether it is near the crust or near the boundary of
the core. The principal contributors to the heat of the core come from the decay of radioactive
elements and from the heat of the molten outer core which solidifies near the inner core.

Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geological processes on Earth. This measures the flow of
thermal energy coming from the core, passing through the mantle, and up to the atmosphere, which
is mainly due to the mantle convection. This, however, is counteracted by the solar radiation.

Magmatism
Magmatism is the activity or the motion of the magma. Rocks that are subjected to high temperature
and pressure melt and become the magma. Magma is a semi-liquid molten rock mixture that can be
found in the lower portion of the crust and the upper part of the mantle. Depending on the
temperature, pressure, and formations in the crust and the mantle, the magma can be formed in
different ways.

Plutonism
On 1788, James Hutton developed the idea about plutonism. He stated that the formation of
intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks came from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth’s
surface. These rocks will reach the Earth’s surface through the process of uplifting - a force that
pulls the crust apart and lets the rocks from the underground to be brought up.
When the hot molten magma does not solidify, it will be brought up to the Earth’s surface through
uplifting. When the magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava - streams of molten rocks that cool
and solidify to form extrusive igneous rocks.

Volcanism
Magma is being brought up to the surface through a volcano. Volcano is any opening in the Earth’s
crust that allows magma and gases to be released in the upper crust. This process of bringing up the
magma is called volcanism.

Explore!
Our country, the Philippines, has 37 volcanoes. Among 37 volcanoes, 18 of them are active and
show activity in the past 100 years. Why do you think the Philippines has plenty of volcanoes?

Try it!
Get an ice cube and put it in a glass. Put a teaspoon of salt to the ice cube and leave for two hours.
What do you notice? What is the connection of this experiment with the contained heat from the
mantle and the core?

What do you think?

If the mantle and the core are extremely hot, why is the heat coming from these layers not felt on the
Earth's surface?

Key Points
 The three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core.
 The principal contributors to the heat of the Earth's core are the decay of radioactive
elements and the heat of the molten outer core near the inner core.
 Mantle convection is the movement of the mantle as heat is transferred from the core to the
crust.
 Earth’s heat budget drives most of the geologic processes on Earth.
 Magma are rocks that melted when subjected to high temperature and pressure.
 Magmatism is the activity or the motion of magma.
 Plutonism is the formation of intrusive igneous rocks through the solidification of magma
beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Volcanism is the phenomenon of an eruption of magma onto the surface of the Earth.
 Volcano is the opening on the Earth’s crust where magma, gases, and hot vapor are being
ejected or released.
 Lava is the cooled and solidified magma upon reaching the Earth’s surface.

Metamorphism and Its Effects in Rock Formation

Objectives
At the end of the discussion, you will be able to:

 compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks,
 describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature, and
 describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression, pulling
apart, and shearing.

Igneous come from the Latin word ignis which means heat or fire. Igneous rocks are formed when
the magma or lava cools and solidifies. It may happen below (plutonic) or above (volcanic) the
Earth’s surface.

The types of igneous rocks depend on where they solidified and hardened. Some igneous rocks
solidified before they were ejected and some igneous rocks are formed after they reach the ground.

Two Types of Igneous Rocks

 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption occurs.
Different rock materials allow the formation of intrusive igneous rocks. The most common
example is granite. Granite is used in floor tiles and monuments.

 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when the lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s
surface. The texture of these rocks is finer as compared to the intrusive igneous rocks. Due
to slow cooling of the lava, large crystals are formed on the rocks. The most common
example is basalt. Basalt is used for construction purposes such as pavements, railroads,
and road base.

Metamorphism of Rocks
When you expose igneous rocks to intense heat and pressure, they could undergo
metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to
intense heat and pressure. It comes from the Greek word metamorphoun meaning transform or
change shape. The rocks that undergo metamorphism are converted to metamorphic rocks.

Types of Metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous
intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions. Country rocks are rocks
surrounding the igneous intrusions. Igneous intrusions form when molten magma moves
and seeps through fractures and in between crystals of rocks. The zone of metamorphosis
that surrounds the intrusions is called halo or aureole. Some examples of rocks that
undergo contact metamorphism include marble and emery rock.

 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are altered due
to high pressure. The rocks that are formed with this type of metamorphism are called
mylonites. Mylonites are compact, fine-grained rocks with thin laminations or layers.
  Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs in broad
areas. It is caused by high temperature and pressure that resulted from the thickening of the
crust and plate tectonics.

Types of Stresses in the Earth’s Crust

 Compression causes the rocks to push or to collide with each other. This can make the
rocks come together or make the plates rise. Mountains and hills could be formed when two
plates collide.

 Tension is the opposite of compression. The tension force pulls the rocks away from each
other. This force created continental drifts and mid-ocean ridges. It moved the oceanic crust
away from each other that resulted in the rising of less dense rocks coming from the mantle.

 Shear force pushes the crust in different directions. Shearing results in the breaking of the
large parts of the crust into smaller sizes. This force always happens along the plate
boundaries. Plate boundaries are the location where the two plates meet. When the two
plates rub each other and move in opposite directions, it creates friction. This friction leads to
 the shaking of the Earth’s ground or earthquake.

Explore!
Observe what happens when you ride an airplane. As it takes off and gradually lifts off, you suddenly
feel air-like bubbles are filling your ears. How would you connect this situation with the different
types of stress that the Earth’s crust encounters?

Try it!
Get a polymer modeling clay. Mold the clay into any shape that you want. Put the clay in a regular
oven and bake it for 15 minutes at 275 °F (135 °C). Take it out of the oven and let it cool for at least
an hour. What happened to the clay? Can you mold it again into other shapes without breaking it?

What do you think?

Can igneous rocks form sedimentary rocks underneath the Earth’s surface?

Key Points
 Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma hardens before an eruption occurs.
 Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth’s surface.
 Metamorphism is the process of change in the form and structure of rocks due to intense
heat and pressure.
 Contact metamorphism is the process where the country rock adjacent to the igneous
intrusions is altered by the high heat coming from the intrusions.
 Dynamic metamorphism is the process where rocks along the fault zones are altered due
to high pressure.
 Regional metamorphism is the most common form of metamorphism that occurs in broad
areas.
  Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or to collide towards each
other.
 Tension is a type of stress that pulls the rocks away from each other.
 Shear force is a type of stress that pushes the crust in different directions.

The Internal Structure of Earth

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify and differentiate the layers of the Earth.

What are the different layers of the Earth?

The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust. The solid outer layer is the crust. A
semi-molten rock called magma lies in the mantle below the crust. Beneath the mantle is the core.
The outer core is a liquid mixture of nickel and iron while the inner core is solid.

The Crust
The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km. It has two layers and is
composed of two major kinds of rocks. The thick continental crust, about 32 km, makes up the land
surface of the Earth and is composed primarily of dense materials such as granite. The thin oceanic
crust has a depth of 5–10 km and is made up of basalt which is less dense than granite. The crust
can be broken down into plates which produce earthquakes when they move along each other.
The Mantle
The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning almost 2900 km and
making up 84% of the Earth’s volume. It contains magma. It is primarily solid but behaves as a
viscous liquid. This behavior is due to temperature differences towards the lower mantle. As the
depth becomes near the core, the temperature increases. This is known as the geothermal
gradient, the increase in temperature with depth. In the upper mantle, the temperatures range from
600 to 900 °C. In the lower mantle, the temperature can reach over 4000 °C.

Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle. If the upper
part of the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the crust. Also, this process is responsible for
earthquakes and other geological processes.
The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid, brittle rock. The
layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of the mantle is solid in a plastic manner (flows
very slowly), allowing the plates to move on top of it.

The Core
The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter than the mantle. It is
divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.

The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and nickel. The temperature
here is around 4000–5700 °C. Due to its high temperature, the outer core undergoes convection and
rotates faster than the planet.

The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the inner core is made
up of iron and nickel, but in solid form. The temperature is quite high at around 7000 °C.

The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the very high
pressure in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the metals. Scientists believed that the
inner core rotates opposite to the direction of the flow of the outer core, creating an effect that
influences the Earth’s magnetic field.
Explore!
If you cut an apple in half, you will see that it is composed of three parts: a thin skin, a flesh in which
the mass is concentrated, and seeds located at the center. Similarly, if you cut the Earth, you will
see layers: a crust on the outside, a mantle of significant weight, and a core at the center.

Try it!
Research about how the layers of the Earth are formed.

What do you think?

What might happen to the Earth if the inner core melts?

Key Points
 The Earth has three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.
 The crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth.
 The types of crust are the oceanic crust and the continental crust.
 The mantle lies below the crust and composed primarily of magma.
 The crust and the upper part of the mantle constitute the lithosphere; the upper part of the
mantle is the asthenosphere.
 The core is the center of the Earth and is composed of the solid inner core and the liquid
outer core.
Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift Theory and Its Evidence

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to cite evidence that support continent drift and explain
how the continents drift.

The seven major world continents are North America, South America, Europe, Africa, Asia,
Australia, and Antarctica.

In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed that in the beginning, the Earth has only
one giant landmass called Pangaea, which means "all land." He hypothesized that this giant
landmass slowly broke into smaller land pieces that eventually drifted away from each other which
made the seven continents that we now know. This is known as the Continental drift theory.

Alfred Wegener presented the following pieces of evidence to support his theory:
 The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. This is most evident in the matching
coastlines of South America and Africa.
 Similar animal and plant fossils were found in different continents. The fossils of the
reptile mesosaurus were found along the coastlines of South America and Africa which are
separated by the Atlantic Ocean. Moreover, the fossil of a fernlike plant glossopteris was
found distributed in all the continents.


In the matching coastlines of northwestern Africa and eastern Brazil, South America, the
rocks are of the same type and age.
 Geologic features such as mountain ranges are found along matching coastlines like that of
the Appalachian Mountains and Scandinavia. 
  Coal seams are found in Antarctica. Coal is produced from organic matter like dead plants
and animals. In a very cold place like Antarctica, it would be impossible for most organisms
to survive. The presence of coal indicates that the continent was once inhabited by many
organisms. It also gives a clue that Antarctica was once located near the equator where
abundant animal and plant organisms could be found.
 Tillites, which are deposits of rock debris left by glaciers, were found in Africa, South
America, India, and Australia. They were of the same age and type. The presence of tillites
indicates that those places had glaciers in the past, were once located near the South Pole,
and had drifted away from each other.

The pieces of evidence supported the continental drift theory; however, the theory was rejected due
to lack of explanation for the force responsible in the continent's movement.

In 1919, Sir Arthur Holmes, an English geologist, proposed the presence of convection cells in the
Earth’s mantle. When the rocks in the Earth’s interior are heated by radioactivity, they become less
dense, and they rise toward the surface of the Earth. When they cool down, they become denser
and sink. The continuous process of rising and sinking of rocks produces convection
cells or convection currents. These currents cause the tectonic plates, which include the crust, to
move and drift.
Try it!
Observe how convection current is produced by heating five to ten pieces of monggo beans in a
beaker. How do the beans move?

What do you think?

What do you think happens when plates, which are parts that form the crust, collide, spread, and
slide past each other?

Key Points
 Alfred Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory is supported by the following pieces of
evidence: jigsaw puzzle fitting of the continents, similar fossils and geologic features in
different continents, coal seams in Antarctica, and tillites in the equator.
 According to Sir Arthur Holmes, convection cells in the mantle drive the tectonic plates to
move and the continents to drift away from each other.

The Seafloor Spreading

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to explain how the structure of the ocean basins evolves as
the seafloor spreads.
Due to convection currents in the Earth’s interior, tectonic plates are in constant motion. In the
previous lesson, you have learned how plate movements form faults and folds in the rocks.

How do convection currents in the Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread?

Seafloor Spreading
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess, explained how the convection currents in the
Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread. Convection currents carry heat from the molten
materials in the mantle and core towards the lithosphere. These currents ensure that the materials
formed in the lithosphere are “recycled” back into the mantle. In this “recycling” process, which was
later named as seafloor spreading, the molten materials flow out to form mid-oceanic ridges,
spread sideways to form seafloor, and disappear into the ocean trenches.

When the molten materials rise, they slowly spread sideways. This motion makes the seafloor above
it to be pulled apart, creating a break or an opening called mid-oceanic ridge, where the molten
materials go out. New oceanic crust is formed from the outpouring of the molten materials, and as
the process continues, oceanic ridges or underwater mountain ranges are built. Oceanic ridges are
composed of volcanic rocks.

As the molten materials continuously flow out from the ridges, the seafloor also keeps on spreading
forming a central valley, or a rift valley, at the summit of the oceanic ridges. The molten materials
push the seafloor away from the ridges and towards the trenches. Trenches are depressions on the
ocean floor. When the molten materials are brought near the trenches, they start to cool, become
denser and sink back down into the Earth where it is heated and melted again. The spreading of the
seafloor continues as a “recycling” process. As new seafloor is created, it continues the process until
it disappears back into the deep ocean trenches. Records show that the oldest seafloor is relatively
younger (about 170 million years old) than the oldest rocks (about 3 billion years old) found on land.
This shows that the seafloor is constantly recycled.

As new oceanic crust is formed at the oceanic ridge, it pushes away the older materials. This means
that the nearer the ocean floor to the oceanic ridge, the younger it is compared to the ones farther
from the ridge.
World Oceanic Ridges
Oceanic ridges are formed at divergent boundaries, where plates move away from each other;
while trenches are formed at subduction zones where plates collide with each other or
at convergent boundaries.

The diagram below shows the location of oceanic ridges in the world. The marked areas depict
where new oceanic crusts are formed which would also show where the ocean floors spread, just
like the Atlantic Ocean basin. These areas are located at divergent boundaries. On the other hand,
the areas farther from the marks, located at convergent boundaries, are subduction zones, like the
Pacific Ocean basin, where the trenches are formed.

Try it!
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), find
out on which type of plate boundary the Philippines lie. Are there trenches or mid-oceanic ridges
present in the Philippine Area of Responsibility?

What do you think?

How will you compare the ocean floor of the Philippines located in the western side of the Pacific
Ocean to the ocean floor of the United States of America located in the eastern side of the Pacific
Ocean?
Key Points
 Mid-oceanic ridges are openings in the seafloor where molten materials from the Earth’s
interior come from.
 New oceanic crust is formed at mid-oceanic ridges.
 Oceanic ridges are underwater mountain ranges that form through the accumulation of
molten materials that go out of mid-oceanic ridges.
 Seafloor spreads as new molten materials come out from the Earth’s interior pushing the
ocean floor as they flow out.
 As the seafloor spreads, structure of the ocean basins evolves depending on the plate
boundary that they lie on.

The Formation of Faults and Folds

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the movement of plates leads to the
formation of folds and faults.

The Earth’s crust is divided into plates, known as tectonic plates, and these plates move due to the
convection currents in the Earth’s interior.

Below is an illustration that depicts the locations and the movements of the plates. The arrows
indicate the direction of their movements.

Plate Movements
The movement of the plates depends on the boundaries between them. These boundaries can be
convergent, divergent, or transform.
In a convergent boundary, the plates move or collide to each other. When the plates move away
from each other, they are in a divergent boundary. Finally, when plates slide past each other, they
are in a transform boundary.

Plate movements cause rocks to be deformed due to compressional stress at convergent

boundaries, tensional stress at divergent boundaries, or shear stress at transform boundaries. Due
to these stresses, rocks experience changes in volume and shape.

Rock Deformation
Compressional stress causes rocks to be squeezed to each other. Tensional stress pulls rocks
apart and shear stress causes rocks to slide opposite each other.

When subjected to stress, rocks can deform by either breaking (fracture) or bending (fold).

Fracture
Since the pressure and temperature are low at the Earth’s surface, rocks tend to break
or fracture when subjected to compressional and tensional stresses. This means that the pressure
exerted in the blocks of rocks exceeds the rock's internal strength.

Fractures can either be a fault or a joint. A fault is a break in the rock where there is considerable
movement on the fracture surface while a joint is a break where there is no considerable movement.

Types of Fault
There are two types of faults. They can either be dip-slip or strike-slip faults.

Dip-slip Faults
Dip-slip faults involve the vertical movement of the blocks of rock. These movements are described
based on the direction of the motion of the hanging wall with respect to the footwall. A hanging
wall is the block of rock that rests on the fault plane while a footwall is the one below the fault
plane.
Dip-slip faults can either be a normal or a reverse fault. A normal fault is caused by tensional stress
it is characterized by the hanging wall moving downward with respect to the footwall. A reverse
fault, wherein the hanging wall moves upward, is formed by compressional stress.

Strike-slip Fault
Strike-slip fault involves a horizontal movement of blocks of rock and is caused by shear stress.

Fold
Deep within the crust, where pressure and temperature are high, rocks are plastic-like; thus, they do
not break but they tend to bend or fold. When rocks in this area are compressed, they become
thicker. When rocks become thinner, they are pulled apart.

Types of Fold
When blocks of rock are bent upwards, they form anticline structures. Synclines are formed when
blocks of rock bend downwards. A slightly bent rock from the parallel undeformed layers
forms monoclines.

Explore
Using the resources from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, find out if you live
in an area where there is a fault.
Try it!
Make slabs out of clay – preferably use different colors to make layers. Apply compressional,
tensional, and shear stress on the slabs of clay. How do the layers move or look like after applying
each type of stress?

Key Points
 Compressional stress is associated with the convergent plate boundary that causes rocks
to be squeezed to each other.
 Tensional stress is associated with the divergent plate boundary that causes rocks to be
pulled apart.
 Shear stress is associated with the transform plate boundary that causes rocks to slide
opposite each other.
 Movement of plates leads to rock deformation such as fracture and fold due to stress.
 A fracture is a break in the rocks and can be classified as a fault or a joint depending on the
amount of movement. A fault can either be a dip-slip or a strike-slip fault.
 A fold is a bend in the rocks and can be classified as anticline, syncline, or monocline.

History of the Earth

2 topics20 questions

Topics under this unit

 Stratification of Rocks and How It Is Used to Determine the Age of the Earth
 The Geologic Time Scale

Stratification of Rocks and How It Is Used to Determine the Age of the Earth

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed,

 describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age of
stratified rocks, and
 explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of geologic
time.

How can we determine the age of the Earth?

How Layers of Rocks Are Formed
Most rocks are sedimentary rocks. They are formed from older rocks that have been broken down by
water or wind. The older rocks become sedimentary particles such as gravel, sand, and mud.
These particles can also bury dead plants and animals. As time goes by, the particles accumulate,
and those that are at the bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand
becomes sandstone; and mud becomes shale or mudstone. The animals or plants buried with
them become fossils. These series of events form the different layers of rocks.

Methods to Determine the Age of Stratified Rocks

There are two methods of determining the ages of rocks: relative dating and absolute dating.

 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.

Relative Dating
Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical dates of rocks. It only tells that one rock is older
than the other but does not tell how old each of the rock is.

In the early mid-1600’s, a Danish scientist, Nicholas Steno, studied the relative positions of
sedimentary rocks. He discovered that they settle based on their relative weight or size in a fluid.
The largest or heaviest particles settle first, and the smallest or the lightest particles settle last. Any
slight changes in the particle size or composition may result in the formation of layers
called beds. Layering or bedding is a distinct quality of sedimentary rocks. The layered rocks are
also called strata.

Principles of Relative Dating

The law of superposition states that, in any sequence of layered sedimentary rocks, the top layer
is younger than the bottom layer. It is important in the interpretation of the Earth's history because it
indicates the relative age of the rock layers and fossils.

The law of original horizontality states that most sediments were originally laid down horizontally.
However, many layered rocks are no longer horizontal. Based on the law of original horizontality, the
rocks that were tilted may be due to later events such as tilting episodes of mountain building.
The law of lateral continuity states that rock layers extend laterally or out to the sides. These
layers may cover broad surfaces. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the rock, but the
layers on either side of the eroded areas still match.

The law of cross-cutting relationship states that fault lines and igneous rocks are younger
features that cut through older features of rocks.
Absolute Dating
Absolute dating or radiometric dating is a method used to determine the age of rocks by
measuring its radioactive decay. A radioactive isotope in the rock decays into a stable daughter
isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age of the sample could be determined.

Examples
 Radiocarbon dating for organic remains could date up to 60 000 years.
 K-Ar dating and U-Pb dating for volcanic rocks could date up to five billion years.

The Geologic Time Scale

The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records,
which describe the relationships between the events that happened throughout the Earth’s history.
The sequence of events is based on the radiometric dating of igneous rocks associated with the
fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks.

A geologic time scale is revised as more fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks are dated. It is calibrated
by integrating results from relative and absolute dating. Below is an example of how geologic time
scale is calibrated.
How the Geologic Time Scale is Calibrated
 Raw data composed of strata or layers are reviewed.
 The unique succession of events in the layers is recognized based on the laws of relative
dating leading to a chronological order of events.
 Numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or radiometric
methods. Absolute dating provides the age for the ash layers while relative dating provides
at least six strata with relative ages – first and last occurrences of the fossils and the volcanic
eruption events.

Try it!
Research on how the age of the trees can be determined. How would you relate this to the topic?

What do you think?

What is the importance of determining the age of rocks?

Key Points
 Strata or the different layers of rocks are formed when the sediments at the bottom of the
pile become rocks.
 Relative dating is a method of arranging geological events based on the rock sequence.
 Absolute dating is a method that gives an actual date of the rock or period of an event.
 Geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic rock records.
  The integration of relative and absolute dating results to a calibrated geological time scale.

The Geologic Time Scale

When plants and animals die, their remains and imprints are buried in rocks or sediments. These
preserved remains or traces are called fossils. Fossils are pieces of evidence that life has
happened in the past. Information from these fossils are used to construct the geologic time scale.

The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth. It is made up of time units
that divide Earth’s history based on the appearance or disappearance of life forms (supported by
fossil remains) in specific times. This scale helps us to study and interpret the history of life on Earth.

As shown in the diagram below, the geologic time scale is divided into hierarchical chunks of time.
From largest to smallest, this hierarchy includes eon, era, period, and epoch. The last column,
indicates millions of years ago, it is represented by Ma which means mega-annum.
  An eon, the largest division of the geologic time scale, spans hundreds to thousands of
millions of years. There are three major eons, the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic
eons. The Phanerozoic eon is the one we are in today.
 An era is hundreds of millions of years long. The three major eras in the Phanerozoic eon
are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. Mass extinctions mark the boundaries
between the eras. We are in the Cenozoic era, which began 65 million years ago, after the
extinction of the dinosaurs.
 A period is tens of millions of years long. It is based on the forms of life existing at that time.
For instance, the tertiary and quaternary periods comprise the Cenozoic Era. The tertiary
period is the beginning of the age of mammals while the quaternary period is considered the
age of humans.
 An epoch is several million years long. It is the division of the most recent periods. For
example, the quaternary period, which began with an ice age about 1.8 million years ago, is
divided into two epochs, the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Each epoch has unique
geography and climate, so plants and animals that existed during those times are unique to
each epoch, too.

The subdivisions of the geologic time scale are identified through marker fossils, or guide fossils.
A marker fossil is a fossil of a plant or an animal that existed for a relatively short period of time. It
helps geologists distinguish between rock strata from different time periods.

For a fossil to be considered as a guide, it should be common, can easily be identified at the species
level, and should be distributed at many locations on the Earth. Also, the shorter the life period of a
fossil, the greater the chances of correlating it with different sediments.

Primitive life forms existed on Earth during Precambrian time and the Paleozoic era. They continue
to evolve through the Mesozoic Era and the current Cenozoic Era.

The diagram below shows the significant events that happened and the organisms that existed and
became extinct at different periods of time. These events became clues to the evolving history of
Earth through time. Several theories were formed from these clues, such as Darwin's theory of
Natural Selection and the theories on events that resulted in the extinction of dinosaurs.
Explore
Take note of your surroundings. How has the area where you live changed over geologic time? How
might it look thousands or millions of years ago? What are the plants and animals that are presently
living in your area? Do you think that the types of animals and plants have changed much over time?

What do you think?

Why is it important to study the events that happened and the organisms that existed even before
the dawn of man?

Key Points
 Fossils are plant or animal impressions preserved in rocks that provide evidence of life
forms in the past.
 The geologic time scale is a record of the geologic history of the Earth.
 Geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
 Divisions within the geologic time scale are based on the appearance or disappearance of
organisms at specific times.
 A marker fossil is used to define and identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale. It is a
fossil of a plant or animal that existed for a relatively short period of time.