3.
Metal Cutting
1
1. Turning (for
rotational parts)
2. Drilling (for
hole making)
3. Milling (for
non-rotational
parts)
Metal cutting removes material
(chips) by a sharp cutting tool
by turning, milling, drilling, etc.
Major components
Work piece
Work piece holder
Cutting tool
Tool holder
Machine tool
+ Variety of materials can be
machined.
+ Variety of part geometries can
be produced.
+ Provides good dimensional
accuracy and surface finish.
- Wasted material
- Time consuming
Cutting tool classification
Single point tool
One dominant cutting edge
Typically rounded to form
nose radius
Turning uses single point
tools
Multi-point tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work
achieved by rotating
Drilling, milling use multi-
point tools
2
1. Turning Process
Performed on a machine tool called Lathe
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating work piece to generate a cylindrical shape.
3
a) d = Depth of cut, f = Feed rate,
b) F
c
= Cutting force, F
t
= Feed force, F
r
= Radial force
Feed and depth of cut
4
Lathe operations for round shapes
5
a) Straight turning
b) Taper turning
c) Profiling
d) External grooving
e) Facing
f) Face grooving
g) Form cutting
h) Boring and
internal grooving
i) Drilling
j) Cutting off
k) Threading
l) Knurling
6
Engine Lathe
Two-dimensional cutting
7
a) Positive rake angle
b) Negative rake angle
Simplified two-dimensional cutting
Taylor tool life equation
C, n = Constant
Some values of n
*
n
C v t =
Rake angle (degrees)
Shear angle (degrees)
Friction angle (degrees)
Forces acting on a chip
9
2 2
0
*
,
sin( )
*sin( ), *cos( )
*cos( ), *sin( )
*sin( ) *cos( )
* ( ) *sin( )
*cos( ) *sin( )
*cos( ) *sin( )
t c s
c t
c t
c t
s c t
s c t
w t
R F F A
F R N R
F R F R
F F F
N F cos F
F F F
N F F
|
| |
| o | o
o o
o o
| |
| |
= + =
= =
= =
= +
=
=
= +
Rake angle (degrees)
Shear angle (degrees)
A
s
- Area of shear plane
F
t
- Thrust force (N, lbs.)
F
c
- Cutting force (N, lbs.)
R - Resultant force (N, lbs.)
F - Friction force (N, lbs.)
N - Normal friction force (N, lbs.)
F
s
- Shear force (N, lbs.)
N
s
- Normal shear force (N, lbs.)
- Friction angle (degrees)
Mechanics of chip formation
Independent variable
Type of cutting tool
Tool geometry and
sharpness
Work piece material
Cutting parameters (feed,
speed, depth of cut)
Cutting fluid
Tool and work piece
holding devices
10
Dependent variable
Type of chip produced
Force required
Energy dissipated
Work piece, chip, tool
temperature rise
Tool wear
Surface finish
Feed and Speed
V - Cutting speed (m/min, ft/min)
N - Rotation speed (rev/min)
f - Feed (mm/rev, in/rev)
fr - Feed rate (mm/min, in/min)
D - Cutter diameter (mm, in)
l - Length of cut (mm, in)
lc - Offset length
w - Work piece width (mm, in)
11
Turning
D
0
- Original part diameter (mm, in)
D
f
- Final part diameter (mm, in)
D
a
-Diameter average (mm, in)
d - Depth of cut (mm, in)
t
0
- Chip thickness before cut (mm, in)
t
c
- Chip thickness after cut (mm, in)
r - Cutting ratio
V
c
- Chip velocity (m/s, ft/s)
V
s
- Shear velocity (m/s, ft/s)
0
* *
* *
D l l
t
f V f N
t
= =
0
2
f
a
D D
D
+
=
0
2
f
D D
d
=
0
sin( )
cos( )
c
t
r
t
|
| o
= =
*
r
f N f =
0
*
V
N
D t
=
MRR - Material Removal
Rate (mm
3
/s, in
3
/s)
MRR = *D
a
*d*f*N = V*d*f
12
Specific Energy (N-m/mm
3
, in-lb/in
3
)
U
c
-Specific energy (cutting)
U
s
-Specific energy (shearing)
U
f
- Specific energy (friction)
Tool Life (min)
C Constant
n Constant
t Tool life
0
0
0
*
* *
* *
* *
* *
c
c
c
f
s s s
s
c f s
F
U
w t
F V F Vc
U
w t V MRR
F Vs F V
U
w t V MRR
U U U
=
= =
= =
= +
0
0
0
* * * *
* * * *
* * * *
c c c
f c f
s s s s
c s f
c
t
PW F V U V w t
PW F V U V w t
PW F V U V w t
PW PW PW
PW
PW
E
= =
= =
= =
~ +
=
1/
* , ( )
n n
C
C V t t
V
= =
Power (N-m/s, W(ft-lb/min)
Hp=(ft-lb/min)/33,000
PW
c
Power (cutting)
PW
s
Power (shearing)
PW
f
Power (friction)
PW
t
- Total power
E - Mechanical efficiency
Power equations
13
2 2
0
*
,
sin( )
*sin( ), *cos( )
*cos( ), *sin( )
*sin( ) *cos( )
* ( ) *sin( )
*cos( ) *sin( )
*cos( ) *sin( )
*tan( )
*tan( )
tan( ),
t c s
c t
c t
c t
s c t
s c t
t c
c t
s
s
w t
R F F A
F R N R
F R F R
F F F
N F cos F
F F F
N F F
F F
F F
F
A
|
| |
| o | o
o o
o o
| |
| |
o
o
| t
= + =
= =
= =
= +
=
=
= +
+
=
= =
Rake angle (degrees)
Shear angle (degrees)
A
s
- Area of shear plane
F
t
- Thrust force (N, lbs.)
F
c
- Cutting force (N, lbs.)
R - Resultant force (N, lbs.)
F - Friction force (N, lbs.)
N - Normal friction force (N, lbs.)
F
s
- Shear force (N, lbs.)
N
s
- Normal shear force (N, lbs.)
- Friction angle (degrees)
- Shear strength
- Shear strain
r - Shear strain rate
- Coefficient of friction
*cos( )
tan( )
1 *sin( )
45 ( )
2 2
45 ( )
tan( ) cot( )
r
r
Merchant
Lee
o
|
o
o |
|
| o |
| o |
=
= +
= +
= +
Force Equations
Example: In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a
rake angle = 15 degree. The chip thickness before the cut =
0.30 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness =
0.65 mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the
shear strain for the operation.
14
0
0
.30, .65, 15
.30
0.462
.65
c
c
t t
t
Cutting ratio r
t
o = = =
= = =
26.85 | =
cot | deg ( ) tan | deg o deg ( ) + :=
| atan
r cos o deg ( )
1 r sin o deg ( )
|
\
|
|
.
180
t
:=
2.18 =
Example: In a turning operation, spindle speed is set to provide a cutting
speed of 1.8 m/s. The feed and depth of cut are 0.30 mm and 2.6 mm,
respectively. The tool rake angle is 8 degree. After the cut, the deformed chip
thickness is measured to be 0.49 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle, (b)
shear strain, and (c) material removal rate.
15
0
3
0
3 3
.30 , .49 , 8 deg.,
.30 , 2.6
1.8 / 1.8*10 /
.30
.612
.49
* ( )
tan( ) 33.5 deg.
1 *sin( )
cot( ) tan( ) 1.987
* * 1.8*10 *.3*2.6 1404 /
c
c
t mm t mm
f mm d mm
V m s mm s
t
r
t
r Cos
r
MRR V f d mm s
o
o
| |
o
| | o
= = =
= =
= =
= = =
= =
= + =
= = =
16
Example: A 6 long, .5 diameter 304 stainless steel
rod is being reduced in diameter to 0.48 by turning
on the lathe. The spindle rotates at 400 rpm and the
tool travels at an axial speed of 8 /min. Calculate
the cutting speed, material removal rate, cutting time,
power dissipated, and cutting force. Assume specific
energy requirement for 304 stainless steel is ut =1.47
hp-min/cubic inch
17
0
0
0 1 0
6", .50", .48", 1.47, 400 / min, 8"/ min
.50 .48 .50 .48
.49", : 0.01"
2 2 2
8
: 0.02 /
400
: * * *.50*400 628 / min 52 / min
:
f
f
a
f
l D D Uc N rev fr
D D
D Depthof cut d
fr
Feed f in rev
N
Cutting speed at D V D N in ft
Cutting speed at D
t t
= = = = = =
+
= = = = =
= = =
= = = =
2
3
3
* * *.48*400 603 / min 50 / min
* * * * *0.49*0.01*0.02*400 0.123 / min
6
0.75min
* 0.02*400
* 1.47*.123 0.181 0.181*396, 000 71, 700 /
*2*
f
a
c c
c
V D N in ft
MRR D d f N in
l
Cutting time t
f N
Power PW U MRR hp in lb in
PW
Torque
N
t t
t t
t
t
= = = =
= = =
= = =
= = = = =
=
71, 700
29
400*2*
2* 2*29
118
.490
c
a
lb in
Cutting Force F lb
D
t
t
= =
= = =
Example: Using the Taylors tool life equation calculate
the percentage increase in tool life when cutting speed
is reduced by 50%. Assume n = .5 and C = 400
18
Range of depth of cut, d = .5-12 mm, .02-.5 in
Range of feed, f = .15-1 mm/rev, .006-.04 in/rev
19
Cutting speeds for carbide and
ceramic tools
Mounting of inserts in tool holders
20
a) Clamping
b) Wing lock pins
c) Examples
Properties of cutting tool materials
21
Hot hardness of some tool materials
Plain carbon steels
High-speed steels (HSS)
Cast cobalt alloys
Cemented carbides
Ceramics
22
High-speed steels (HSS)
commonly used. Two
basic types
Tungsten-type
Molybdenum-type
n and C values of some tool materials
23
n C (m/min) C (ft/min)
High speed steel:
Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
*
n
C v t = Tool life
24
a) CNC Lathe
b) Ten Cutting Tool Turret
CNC Turning Center
25
2. Drilling Process
(creates round holes)
Through hole (drill
exits on opposite
side of work piece)
26
Blind hole (drill does not exit on
opposite side of work piece)
Upright drill press
Twist Drill
27
Most common cutting tools for hole-making
Usually made of high speed steel
Shown below is standard twist drill geometry
Drilling Operations
28
a) Reaming: Used to slightly enlarge an existing hole, in
order to achieve better tolerances
b) Tapping: Used to provide internal screw threads in an
existing hole
c) Counter boring: Used to provide a stepped hole, larger
diameter follows a smaller diameter
Drilling Operations
29
d) Counter sinking: Similar counter boring, except the
step in the hole is cone shaped
e) Centering: Used to drill a starting hole.
f) Spot facing: Used to provide a flat surface
Work holding for drill presses
30
Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of the
following workholders:
Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws
Fixture - workholding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular workpart
Drill jig similar to fixture but also provides a
means of guiding the tool during drilling
D - Drill diameter,
MRR - Material Removal Rate for drilling
2
*
* *
4
D
MRR f N
t
=
31
3. Milling Process
Part Geometries
Conventional and Climb Milling
32
a) Conventional (up milling)
vs. Climb ( down milling)
c) Cutter Travel Distance
b) Slab Milling
Type of Milling Operations
33
a) Slab or peripheral milling
Axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the work piece
surface
Cutting edges outside the periphery of the cutter
b) Face milling
Axis of cutter rotation is perpendicular to the work
surface
Cutting edges on both sides of the cutter
c) End milling
Axis of cutter is usually perpendicular to the work
piece
Plain
Milling
Cutter
Face
Milling
Cutter
Types of slab/peripheral milling
34
(a) Slab milling (b) slotting
(d) straddle milling
(c) side milling
(e) form milling
Types of face milling
35
(c) End milling
(a) Conventional
face milling
(b) Partial face milling
(d) Profile milling using
an end mill
(f) Contour milling
(e) Pocket milling
Milling Machines
36
(a) Horizontal milling machine (b) vertical milling machine
Machining Centers
37
Reconfigurable Machines
38
Given the following orthogonal cutting data, determine: a) Shear angle, b) Friction coefficient,
c) Shear stress, d) Shear strain, e) Chip velocity, f) Shear velocity, g) Specific cutting energy,
h) Specific friction energy, i) Specific shear energy, j) Temperature at tool chip interface.
39
Depth of cut (mm) t0 .15 := Rake angle (degrees) o 5 deg := Cutting force (N) Fc 500 :=
Chip thickness (mm) tc .3 := Cutting speed (m/sec) V 4 := Themal diffusivity
(mm^2/s)
K 100 :=
Width of cut (mm) w 4 := Flow strength (MPa) Yf 120 := Thurst force (N) Ft 300 :=
Volumetric specific heat (N/mm^2C) c 3 :=
Cutting ratio r
t0
tc
:= r 0.5 =
a) Shear angle (degrees)
| atan
r cos o ( )
1 r sin o ( )
|
\
|
|
.
:= |
180
t
27.51 =
b) Friction coefficient
Ft Fc tan o ( ) +
Fc Ft tan o ( )
:= 0.726 =
Friction angle
| atan ( )
180
t
:= | 35.964 =
Shear force
Fs Fc cos | ( ) Ft sin | ( ) := Fs 304.893 =
Area of shear plane
As
w t0
sin | ( )
:= As 1.299 =
c) Shear stress (MPa)
t
Fs
As
:=
t 234.72 =
d) Shear strain cot | deg ( ) tan | deg o ( ) + := 119.249 =
40
e) Chip velocity (m/s)
Vc
V sin | ( )
cos | o ( )
:= Vc 2 =
f) Shear velocity (m/s)
Vs
Vc cos o ( )
sin | ( )
:=
Vs 4.313 =
g) Specific cutting
energy/unit vol (MN-m/m^3)
Uc
Fc
w t0
:= Uc 833.333 =
h) Specific friction
energy/unit vol (MN-m/m^3)
Uf
r Fc sin o ( ) Ft cos o ( ) + ( )
w t0
:= Uf 285.364 =
i) Specific shear energy/unit
vol (MN-m/m^3)
Us Uc Uf := Us 547.97 =
Cutting speed
(mm/sec)
V1 V 10
3
:= V1 4000 =
j) Temperature C
T
3.8 Yf
c
3
V1 t0
K
|
\
|
|
.
:= T 276.202 =
