Document On Biology of Rice

Document on Biology of Rice (Oryza sativa L.
) in India
Gurinder Jit Randhawa Shashi Bhalla V. Celia Chalam Vandana Tyagi
Desh Deepak Verma Manoranjan Hota
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi
Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit Ministry of Environment and Forests New Delhi
Published in 2006
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi Project Coordinating and Monitoring Unit, Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi
Copies can be obtained from : The Director
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, India
Printed by : Alpha Lithographics Inc., New Delhi-110028 Ph.: 9811199620, 41495131
PREFACE
PREFACE
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
Under the GEF-World Bank funded project on Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi in association with the Project Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India is bringing out Document on Biology of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in India. This document is intended to provide an exhaustive information about the biology of rice in India, including its taxonomic status, botany, reproductive biology, cultivation, genetic diversity and pests which may be used as a tool by those tasked with assessing the environmental safety of transgenic rice that may be released into the environment. This document will surely serve as a useful reference for an effective and systematic risk assessment of transgenic rice in Indian conditions.
(S. K. Sharma)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of Dr. G. S. Khush, Adjunct Professor, University of California, Davis, USA; Dr. E. A. Siddiq, Professor, Department of Biotechnology, ANGRAU, Hyderabad; Dr. S. D. Sharma, Former Head, Genetics Division, CRRI, Cuttack and Dr. Morven, President AGBIOS, Canada for reviewing this document. The contributions of Dr. R. K. Khetarpal, Head, Plant Quarantine Division, NBPGR for the chapter VIII on Pests of rice are especially acknowledged. Contribution of Dr. Sanjeev Saxena, Senior Scientist, Conservation Division, NBPGR for the chapter VII Rice genetic diversity in India was indeed very valuable. This document would not have been possible without the consistent support and guidance of Dr. B. S. Dhillon and Dr. J. L. Karihaloo, former Directors, NBPGR and coordinators of the project, which is gratefully acknowledged. The unstinted support, guidance and encouragement of Dr. S. K. Sharma, Director, NBPGR and Coordinator of the project in bringing out of this document is especially acknowledged. The special interest taken by Dr. Eija Pehu, Senior Adviser, Agricultural and Rural Development Department, the World Bank for bringing out this document is greatly acknowledged. The contributions of Dr. Monika Singh and Mr. Sridhar, Research Associates, of the project for bringing out this document are also acknowledged. I also gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support of the GEF- World Bank and Project Coordination and Monitoring Unit of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, for bringing out this important document.
(Gurinder Jit Randhawa) Project Investigator
PROJECT DETAILS
PROJECT DETAILS
Title:
GEF-World Bank aided Capacity Building Project for the Implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in India September 2004 to June 2007
Period:
Source of Funding: World Bank and Project Coordinating and Monitroring Unit (PCMU), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi Team Members: Project Coordinators Dr. B. S. Dhillon, Former Director, NBPGR (upto 26th July 2005) Dr. J. L. Karihaloo, Former Director, NBPGR (upto 31st January 2006) Dr. S. K. Sharma, Director, NBPGR Principal Investigator Dr. Gurinder Jit Randhawa, Sr. Scientist, NRCDNFP, NBPGR Co-Principal Investigators Dr. Shashi Bhalla, Sr. Scientist, Division of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR Dr. V. Celia Chalam, Sr. Scientist, Division of Plant Quarantine, NBPGR Dr. Vandana Tyagi, Scientist (Sr. Scale), Germplasm Exchange Unit, NBPGR Objectives: 1. Development and standardization of diagnostic tools for detection of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) and the traits expressed by them for the transgenic material under exchange Development of biology document for rice for centres of origin/diversity, its taxonomy, genetics, description of wild and weedy relatives, pests and diseases etc. Human Resource Development: To conduct training courses/workshops on Biosafety and hands on training on LMOs detection using Enzymelinked Immunsorbent Assay (ELISA) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-based techniques.
2.
3.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
PAGE
SECTION I SECTION II SECTION III SECTION IV
RICE AS A CROP PLANT TAXONOMIC STATUS CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY BOTANY OF RICE (a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza (b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of Morphological Characters REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY (a) Sexual Reproduction (b) Asexual Reproduction (c) Reproductive Barriers CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA (a) Rice Growing Regions (b) Rice Ecosystems (c) Cropping Patterns RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA (a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm (b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value (c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars (d) Exotic Germplasm (e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits (f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries (g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India PESTS OF RICE STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA REFERENCES
1 2 3 4
SECTION V
SECTION VI
11
SECTION VII
15
SECTION VIII SECTION IX SECTION X
29 64 65
SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT
SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the three major food crops of the world. Being grown worldwide, it is the staple food for more than one and a half of the worlds population. It is a nutritious cereal crop, provides 20 per cent of the calories and 15 per cent of protein consumed by worlds population. Besides being the chief source of carbohydrate and protein in Asia, it also provides minerals and fibre. Rice straw and bran are important animal feed in many countries. India is the largest rice growing country accounting for about one-third of the world acreage under the crop. It is grown in almost all the states of India, covering more than 30 per cent of the total cultivated area. Its cultivation is mostly concentrated in the river valleys, deltas and lowlying coastal areas of northeastern and southern India, especially in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, which together contribute about 97 per cent of the countrys rice production. Contributing about 42 per cent to countrys food grain production, rice not only forms the mainstay of diet for majority of its people (>55 per cent), but also is the livelihood for over 70 per cent of the population in the traditional rice growing regions (Figure 1).
SECTION II TAXONOMIC STATUS DOCUMENT-ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA
SECTION II - TAXONOMIC STATUS

Rice belongs to the genus: Oryza, family: Gramineae (Poaceae) and tribe: Oryzeae. The genus Oryza is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics of the world (Table1). The genus consists of 23 wild and weedy species and two cultivated species, viz., the Asian O. sativa and the African O. glaberrima. O. sativa, domesticated in Asia has now spread to almost all the rice growing areas of the world, while O. glaberrima, domesticated in western tropical Africa is confined to that part of the world alone. The basic chromosome number of the genus is n=12. The species are either diploid with 2n=24 chromosomes or tetraploids with 2n=48 chromosomes. Based on genome analysis and degree of sexual compatibility, the species have been grouped under nine distinct genomes, viz., A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H and J and unclassified in five complexes, namely Sativa, Officinalis, Meyeriana, Ridleyi and Unclassified (Table 1). On the basis of crossability and ease of gene transfer, the primary genepool of rice is known to comprise the species of Sativa complex, while the species belonging to Officinalis complex constitute the secondary genepool. Crosses between O. sativa and the species of Officinalis complex can be accomplished through embryo rescue technique. The species belonging to Meyeriana, Ridleyi complexes and O. schlechteri constitute the tertiary genepool (Khush, 2000; Siddiq, 2000).
Table 1: Species complex of the genus Oryza and their geographical distribution Species Complex Chromosome Number 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 48 48 24 24 48 48 48 24 48 24 24 48 48 24 48 Genome AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA BB CC BBCC BBCC CC CC CCDD CCDD CCDD EE BBCC GG GG HHJJ HHJJ Geographical Distribution South & Southeast Asia Tropical Asia Tropical Asia Tropical Australia Tropical America Tropical West Africa West Africa Africa Africa Sri Lanka Philippines, New Guinea South India (Kerala) Asia, New Guinea East Africa & Sri Lanka Central & South America Central & South America South America Northern Australia Tropical Africa South & Southeast Asia Southeast Asia Indonesia, New Guinea Southeast Asia I. Sativa complex O. sativa L. O. nivara Sharma et Shastry O. rufipogon Griff. O. meridionalis Ng O. glumaepetula Steud. O. glaberrima Steud. O. barthii A. Chev. et Roehr. O. longistaminata A. Chev. et Roehr. II. Officinalis Complex/ Latifolia complex O. punctata Kotschy ex Steud. O. rhizomatis Vaughan O. minuta J.S.Pesl. ex C.B.Presl. O. malamphuzensis Krishn. et Chandr. O. officinalis Wall. ex Watt O. eichingeri A. Peter O. latifolia Desv. O. alta Swallen O. grandiglumis (Doell) Prod. O. australiensis Domin. O. schweinfurthiana Prod. III. Meyeriana Complex O. granulata Nees et Arn. ex Watt O. meyeriana (Zoll. et Mor. ex Steud.) Baill. IV. Ridleyi Complex O. longiglumis Jansen O. ridleyi Hook. f. V. Unclassified (belonging to no complex) O. brachyantha A. Chev. et Roehr. O. schlechteri Pilger
FF West & Central Africa HHKK Indonesia, New Guinea Source: Brar and Khush, 2003
SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY
SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY

Archaeological and historical evidence points to the foothills of Himalayas in the North and hills in the North-east of India to the mountain ranges of South-east Asia and South-west China as the primary centre of origin of Oryza sativa, and the delta of River Niger in Africa for that of O. glaberrima, the African rice. These areas are characterized by topological heterogeneity and are considered to be the centres of rice diversity. The diversity in these centres is being lost rapidly with many rice growers shifting to modern cultivars. The wild progenitors of O. sativa are the Asian common wild rices, which show wide variation ranging in their habit from perennial to annuals. These perennial and annual forms although were treated as a single species, viz., O. rufipogon by some biosystematists (Second, 1982; 1986). Now they are recognized as two distinct species, namely O. rufipogon and O. nivara, respectively (Chang 1985). O. sativa is considered to have been domesticated between 9000 and 7000 BC. Annual forms might have gradually developed in plateau regions of eastern India, South-east Asia and southern China. During the course of time, they differentiated into two ecogenetic groups: indica and japonica (temperate and tropical japonicas) (Chang, 1985). Schematic representation of evolutionary pathways of the Asian and African cultivated rices is shown in Figure 2. The wild progenitor of the African cultivar O. glaberrima is O. longistaminata endemic to West Africa. The primary centre of diversity for O. glaberrima is the swampy basin of Upper Niger. Now, O. sativa and O. glaberrima are grown as mixtures of varying proportions by West African farmers (Chang, 1976; Oka et al., 1978; Morishima and Oka, 1979).
C o m m o n a n cesto r (O . perenn is ) A sian rice (So u th a n d S o u th -w e st A sia) A fric an rice (Tro p ical A frica )
W ild p e ren n ia l
O . rufipo g on (A A )
O . lo ngistam in ata (A A )
W ild an n u a l
O . nivara (A A )
W ee d y an n u a l race s O . spon ta nea O . stap fii
O . ba rthii (A A g )
C u ltiv ate d an n u a l
O . sativ a (A A ) Tem p erate ja po nica
O . glaberrim a (A g A g )
Indica
Ja pon ica Tro p ic al ja po nica ( Ja van ic a)
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the evolutionary pathways of Asian and African cultivated rices
SECTION IV ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA DOCUMENT - BOTANY OF RICE
SECTION IV - BOTANY OF RICE

The Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) and its allied taxa that occur in Asia present a continuous array of morphological features, so that the whole group has been termed as O. sativa complex by Tateoka (1962). The updated and comprehensive botany of rice has been reviewed by Nanda and Sharma (2003). (a) General Morphological Characteristics of Genus Oryza Root system The root system is fairly well developed in all species of rice. In perennial rices, short underground shoots densely covered with sheathed leaves are present. Annual species have long but slightly branched adventitious roots whereas a main root and subterranean shoots are completely absent. Stalks Stalks are erect or ascending in all rices except in O. sativa where they are geniculately ascending, recumbent, rooting at the nodes and sometimes producing new shoots at these points. Leaf sheaths Leaf sheaths are always open and glabrous along the edge. In some of the species like O. grandiglumis, O. latifolia and O. officinalis, leaf sheaths may possess cilia. Like stalks, leaf sheaths also have a clearly marked or ribbed venation and become keel-like by the protrudation of the midvein in the upper part of the sheath beneath the leaf lamina. The leaf sheaths of all rices are grassy, smooth and firm in species living in meadows and woods, and have air passages in that part of sheath submerged in water in species inhabiting bogs. Auricles In all the species of rice except O. subulata, the leaf sheath, where it passes into the leaf lamina, ends in a small hollow with bent neck, glabrous or ciliated edges called auricle. Leaf lamina All rices can be divided into 2 groups according to the shape of lamina: Those having linear-lanceolate leaves, i.e., in which the length of the leaf is so much greater than the width that they appear ribbon-like. e.g. O. sativa having long acicular linear leaves. Those having a lanceolate-like or elongate-lanceolate shape, e.g. O. granulata and O. abromeitiana in which base of the leaf is so constricted that it appears as if it forms a petiole. Ligule The ligule is oblong or blunt and 1-5 mm long in most of the species. In O. latifolia, the ligule is short but breaks up at the apex into a row of hard, sometimes wooly hairs. Inflorescence In all rices a panicle with branches that branch 1-2, or with lower branches branching once but the
upper ones not branching at all that is, with an inflorescence constructed in the lower part as a panicle but in the upper part as a raceme. The shape of inflorescence also depends on the frequency of branching and for majority of rices is oblong or fusiform. In O. brachyantha, O. abromeitiana and O. granulata, it is almost linear with small spikelets, whereas in O. latifolia and O. grandiglumis, it is a wide panicle with many spikelets. Axis of inflorescence is ribbed in all species and appears to be composed of individual, coalescent branches. Branches of inflorescence occur on axis in 1-4 irregular whorls. Like the axis of inflorescence, the branches are also glabrous, smooth lower down but gradually become sharp scabrous in upper part. Pedicels of spikelets and lower empty glumes Pedicels of spikelets are short, 1-6 mm long and have distinct ridges on both sides ending in cyathiform enlargement consisting of two wide, about 0.5 mm long coalescent glumes, representing lower pair of empty glumes. Cyathiform enlargement of pedicel is mostly horizontal and attached to base of spikelet. In O. breviligulata, O. sativa and O. stapfii, pedicel is drawn out at its extreme apex so that the cup-shaped enlargement is placed almost vertically and attached somewhat laterally to base of the spikelet. Articulation Articulation is present in all rice species between lower and upper empty glumes. It is fairly distinct in most of the species because the spikelets fall easily on ripening of seeds. However, it is less distinct in the cultivated species O. sativa where during the ripening of fruits the spikelets do not drop off but remain on the branches. Spikelets Spikelets are always upright, orbicular or obliquely oblong, compressed from sides, with deep longitudinal grooves and blunt ribs. According to spikelet shapes, all rices can be divided into 3 groups: Rice with narrow spikelets, i.e., those in which the length is more than three times the breadth as in O. brachyantha, O. breviligulata, O. longistaminata, O. ridleyi, O. stapffi, O. subulata and O. coarctata. Rice with orbicular spikelet, i.e., those in which the length is 2-2.5 times the breadth as in O. australiensis, O. glaberrima, O. latifolia, O. officinalis, O. punctata and O. sativa. Rice with broad spikelets, i.e., those in which the length although greater than width is less than twice width, as in O. grandiglumis, O. minuta and O. schlechteri. Upper empty glumes Upper empty glumes are almost always distinct. They are: linear or linear-lanceolate as in most rice species subulate or setaceous as in O. brachyantha, O. coarctata, O. granulata, O. ridleyi, O. schelechteri and keel-shaped as in O. grandiglumis. cyathiform as in O. subulata.
DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA
Flowering glumes Flowering glumes are always leathery or hard-leathery with small traversely intersecting rows of small tubercles over entire surface. In all species, lower flowering glumes are compressed from the side, keel-shaped with 5 veins, in upper part terminating along the external edge in small beak, which is generally extended into a small point or long awn. Upper flowering glume is always considerably lower than one, with 3 veins. Awn According to its length, the awn of all species of rice can be divided into: awnless: O. abromeitiana, O. glaberrima, O. granulata and O. schlechteri short awn in which the awn is shorter than the glume itself: O. coarctata and O. ridleyi moderately long awn, which is longer than the glume but not longer than 60 mm: O. australiensis, O. latifolia, O. longistaminata, O. minuta, O. punctata and O. subulata. very long awn 60-200 mm: O. brachyantha, O. breviligulata and O. stapfii. The awns of rice are usually filiform or setaceous, i.e., in cross-section, they are orbicular and tapering only lightly at the apex. Lodicules In all species, lodicules are uniform, ovate-circular or orbicular, glabrous. Stamens The stamens have about 2-2.5 mm long linear-oblong anthers. The anthers dehisce through a longitudinal slit. Stigmas Stigmas are uniform, feathery and dark-violet or almost black. Fruits Fruits are small, compressed from sides, 1-8 mm long, oblong, elliptical or orbicular, depending on shape and size of the spikelet. Small fruits of rice are initially yellowish, then turn dark brown. (b) Subdivision of Genus Oryza on the Basis of Morphological Characters Based on morphological characters and geographical distribution of different species, the following sections may be established within the genus Oryza. (i) Sativa Roshev. The most widespread group, embracing the whole area of distribution of the genus; flowering glumes with distinctly crosswise intersecting rows of small tubercles; linear or linear-lanceolate upper empty glumes; annuals and perennials. To this section belong: O. sativa L., O. longistaminata A. Cheval. et Roehr., O. grandiglumis Prod., O. punctata Kotschy, O. stapfii Roshev., O. breviligulata A. Cheval. et Roehr., O. australiensis Dom., O. glaberrima Steud., O. latifolia Desv., Cheval. et Roehr., Prod., O. officinalis Wall., and O. minuta Presl.
(ii) Granulata Roshev. Found only in South-east Asia; perennials; flowering glumes with minute tuberculate-corrugated or verrucose surface; awl-shaped or bristle-shaped upper empty glumes; lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate spikelets. To this section belong: O. granulata Nees and O. abromeitiana Prod. (iii) Coarctata Roshev. Embraces South-east Asia and northern Australia; perennials or less frequently annuals; flowering glumes showing an almost smooth surface with minute, longitudinal dotted stripes; awl or bristleshaped upper empty glumes. To this section belong: O. schlechteriana Pilger, O. ridleyi Hook. f., O. coarctata Roxb. and O. brachyantha A. Cheval. et Roehr. (iv) Rhynchoryza Roshev. Occurs only in South America; perennial; comparatively large oblong spikelets drawn out at the apex into a long cone filled with spongy tissue, passing over into an awn; cyathiform upper empty glumes, with 3-5 veins. This section comprises only one species, O. subulata Nees.
SECTION V REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY DOCUMENT- ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA
SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

(a) Sexual Reproduction Oryza sativa is basically an autogamous plant propagating through seeds produced by selfpollination. Fertilization occurs in a spikelet, which has six anthers with more than 1,000 pollen grains in each, and an ovule with a branched stigma. Immediately after the spikelet opens at flowering, pollen disperses and germinates on the surface of the stigma. Only one pollen tube reaches the ovule to initiate double fertilization. Maturation of pollen in an anther is synchronized with maturation of ovule within the same spikelet. Germinability of pollen lasts only for a few minutes after being shed from anther under favourable temperature and moisture conditions, while ovules keep their viability to receive pollen for several days after maturation. The pollen of cultivated rice loses its viability within three to five minutes while that of wild rice remain viable up to nine minutes (Koga et al., 1971; Oka and Morishima, 1967). Most of the wild species have larger and longer stigma, which protrudes well outside the spikelet, facilitating increased percentage of outcrossing (Parmar et al., 1979; Virmani and Edwards, 1983). Outcrossing is several times higher in the wild species as compared to cultivars under the A genome itself. Among the ecotypes of O. sativa, percentage outcrossing is generally higher in indicas than in japonicas (Table 2) (Oka, 1988). Nevertheless, cross-pollination between annual/ perennial species and cultivars in natural habitats where they grow side by side leading to hybrid swarms (O. spontanea in Asia and O. stapfii in Africa) is not uncommon. (i) Outcrossing rates Although O. sativa is basically self-pollinated, natural outcrossing can occur at a rate of up to 0.5% (Oka, 1988) (Table 2). When different cultivars of the same maturity group are planted side by side in a field or in adjacent fields, natural outcrossing can occur between them. Outcrossing in such cases can be avoided by planting cultivars with sufficiently different duration in adjacent fields or by time isolation by adopting sufficiently different dates of planting. F1 plants of crosses within the indica or japonica groups generally show high fertility and seedset. Crosses between the two groups show, however, lower fertility and seedset, the range being quite wide and varied depending on the parental choice. The F1 fertility, according to it, cannot be the criterion for classifying Asian cultivars into indica and japonica groups (Oka, 1988; Pham, 1991). Constellation of a set of traits characteristic to them besides F1 semisterility has justified them to consider now as subspecies or geographical groups under O. sativa. The barrier of hybrid sterility in indica/japonica crosses has been intensively studied since early fifties and genic and chromosomal models have been proposed to explain the sterility. With the discovery of wide compatibility gene (s) in some of the varieties, which are compatible with both japonica and indica varieties, the sterility problem, has been overcome resulting in more productive varieties and hybrids of indica/japonica background. (ii) Interspecific crosses O. sativa and O. glaberrima are often grown as mixtures in various proportions in West African rice fields (Chu et al., 1969). The two species resemble each other, perhaps due to co-evolution from a common progenitor O. perennis, but natural hybrids between them are rare, even though experimental hybridisation is easy. The F1 plants are highly pollen-sterile, but about one-thirds of the F1 embryo sacs are normal and functional. Backcrosses can be made with pollen of either of
SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
the parents. The gene loci that have been examined are identical in the two species (Sano, 1988). Most natural hybrids incompatible due to genetic and physiological differences, hardly survive to facilitate gene flow between the two species. In nature, O. rufipogon and O. nivara (the progenitor species) cross with O. sativa and produce hybrid swarms. The hybrids show partial sterility (Sharma and Shastry, 1965). O. glaberrima and its wild progenitor O. brevigulata similarly cross under natural environment resulting in hybrid swarms, which are fertile. They are of annual growth habit and resemble each other in most of the botanical characters (Oka, 1991). The wild rices with AA genome are distributed throughout the humid tropics such as Asian (O. nivara and O. rufipogon), African (O. barthii and O. longistaminata), American (O. glumaepatula) and Oceanian (O. meriodinalis) species. The relatively high percentage seed sets (9-73%) can however be obtained through artificial hybridization of O. sativa with these AA genome wild species (Sitch et al., 1989). O. nivara and O. rufipogon have been extensively used as donor sources for many valuable traits of value which included resistance to grassy stunt virus, blast and bacterial leaf blight besides cytoplasmic male sterility (Khush and Ling, 1974). Species belonging to BB, BBCC, CC, or CCDD genomes are relatively more crossable with O. sativa (0-30% seedset) than the more distantly related EE and FF genome species. The hybrids in both cases, however, are highly male and female sterile (Sitch, 1990). Desired gene transfer has been achieved through a series of backcrosses. For instance, resistance to brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) and white-backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera) from O. officinalis (Jena and Khush, 1990) and to blast and bacterial blight from O. minuta (Amante-Bordeos et al., 1992) have been transferred by repeated backcrossing with O. sativa. Artificial crosses between O. sativa and more distantly related species such as O. ridleyi and O. meyeriana although have also been reported, success rate was very low (Katayama and Onizuka, 1979; Sitch et al., 1989). In such cases, embryo rescue is the approach to obtain F1 hybrids and first backcross progenies. (b) Asexual Reproduction O. sativa, although is an annual and propagated by seed, can be maintained vegetatively as a perennial under favourable water and temperature conditions. The perennial character in O. sativa is considered to have been inherited from its ancestral species O. rufipogon (Morishima et al., 1963). Under natural conditions, tiller buds on the basal nodes start to re-grow after harvest. These new tillers, called ratoon grow best under long-day conditions. In some countries/situations, farmers grow rice as a ratoon crop to obtain a second harvest in a short period. Cell/ tissue culture techniques can be used to propagate calli and reproduce tissues or plants asexually under appropriate cultural conditions. Haploid plants are easily obtained through anther culture. They become diploid spontaneously or when artificially treated with polyploidizing agents (Niizeki and Oono, 1968). Anther culture is widely used as a rapid breeding method in rice, while doubled haploids serve as material for basic research in molecular mapping and tagging of genes of interest. (c) Reproductive Barriers Viable hybrids between O. sativa and distantly related species are difficult to achieve. The postfertilization barriers are of four types, viz., F1 inviability (early embryo abortion), F1 weakness, F1 sterility and hybrid breakdown (Oka, 1988). All these phenomena have been found in crosses of cultivated rice and its wild relatives, although F1 plants, whose parents have AA genome in common show no significant disturbances in meiotic chromosome pairing (Chu et al., 1969).
10
In many cases, hybrid inviability is due to failure of development of F1 zygotes, particularly development of endosperm. The African perennial species O. longistaminata shows a stronger crossing barrier with O. glabberima and O. breviligulata than with O. sativa and O. rufipogon (Chu et al., 1969). F1 weakness is controlled by complementary weakness-dominant genes (Chu and Oka, 1972), which disturb tissue differentiation or chlorophyll formation. It is rare in crosses between O. sativa cultivars (Amemiya and Akemine, 1963). Among strains of O. glabberima and O. breviligulata about one-fourth of the crosses examined show F1 weakness (Chu and Oka, 1972). F1 weakness was found also in crosses between O. longistaminata and O. glabberima or between O. breviligulata, and the American form of O. perennis, and between the Asian and Oceanian forms of O. perennis complex (Oka, 1988). F1 hybrid sterility is a common feature in crosses of cultivated rice with their wild relatives. Failure of male and female gametes to develop normally is largely due to meiotic anomalies arising from either no or partial pairing of chromosomes. Cytoplasmic sterility factor found in wild species also in some combinations manifest F1 sterility. Partial F1 hybrid sterility is characteristic to intervarietal group cross with O. sativa especially in indica/ japonica combination. The sterility persisting beyond F1, in the F2 and subsequent generations has been explained at genic and chromosomal levels (Kitamura 1962; Oka 1964). At generic level, it is attributed to a series of duplicate recessive genes while at chromosomal level as due to cryptic structural differences in the chromosome complements of the two geographic races. The weakness and sterility occurring in the F2 and later segregating generations are referred to as hybrid breakdown. It is reported to be controlled by a set of complementary recessive weakness genes (Oka, 1957; Okuno, 1986). Genes for F2 weakness seem to be distributed occasionally in cultivated and wild rice species.
Table 2: Estimated outcrossing rates in wild and cultivated rice species by different methods Taxa/ Type
Asian perennis Perennial Thailand Thailand Intermediate Perennial Annual
Origin
Method
No. of Populations
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 4 1 5
Outcrossing (%)
30.7 44.0 50.6 37.4 22.4-26.5 21.7 16.6-33.9 7.9 7.2 17.3-20.6 3.2-19.7 0.1-0.3 3.6 0.6-3.9
Reference
Taiwan Marker gene Isozyme markers India Sri Lanka India India India Thailand India Africa Taiwan Sri Lanka Taiwan
Marker gene
Oka, 1957 Oka and Chang, 1961 Barbier, 1987 Oka and Chang, 1959 Sakai and Narise, 1959 Oka and Chang, 1959 Sakai and Narise, 1960 Roy, 1921 Barbier, 1987 Oka and Chang, 1959 Morishima et al., 1963 Oka, 1988 Sakai and Narise, 1960 Oka, 1988 Source: Oka, 1988
Weedy Breviligulata Sativa Indica Japonica
Variance ratio Variance ratio Variance ratio Variance ratio Marker gene Isozyme markers Variance ratio Variance ratio Marker gene Variance ratio Marker gene
SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 11
SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA

(a) Rice Growing Regions Rice is grown under diverse soil and climatic conditions. It is said that there is hardly any type of soil in which it cannot be grown including alkaline and acidic soils. Because of its wide adaptability, it is grown from below sea level in Kuttanad area of Kerala to an altitude of 2000 metres above sea level in Jammu & Kashmir, hills of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Northeastern hills (NEH) areas. The rice growing areas in the country may be broadly grouped into the following five regions: (i) North-eastern region This region comprises Assam and North-eastern states. In Assam, rice is grown in the basin of river Brahmaputra. The region receives very heavy rainfall and hence, rice is grown under rainfed conditions. (ii) Eastern region It comprises Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region, rice is grown in the basins of the rivers Ganga and Mahanadi. It has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. The region receives heavy rainfall and hence, rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. (iii) Northern region Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal constitute this region. Mainly as the irrigated crop, rice is grown from May/July to September/ December. (iv) Western region This region comprises Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rainfed conditions during June/ AugustOctober/ December. (v) Southern region This region comprises Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Rice is mainly grown as irrigated crop in the deltas of the rivers Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. In the non-deltaic areas, rice is grown as rainfed crop. (b) Rice Ecosystems Rice is grown under varied ecosystems on a variety of soils under varying climatic and hydrological conditions ranging from waterlogged and poorly drained to well-drained situations as briefly discussed below: (i) Irrigated rice The total area under irrigated rice is about 22.0 million hectares, which accounts for about 46 per
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cent of the total area under rice crop in the country. In Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, rice is grown as irrigated crop. (ii) Rainfed rice The rainfed ecosystem may be broadly categorized into upland and lowland ecologies. Upland rice: Upland rice areas lie in the eastern zone comprising Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and North-eastern Hill region. In the rainfed upland rice, there is no standing water in the field after few hours of cessation of rain. Because of uneven topography, the upland rice accounts for about 6.0 million ha (13.5 per cent of the total rice area). Productivity of upland rice is very low and stagnant for long. As against the present national average productivity of about 1.9 tonnes per ha., the average yield of upland rice is only 0.90 tonnes per ha. Lowland rice: Lowland rice area is mostly located in the eastern region comprising Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Lowland rice area is about 14.4 million ha., which accounts for 32.4 per cent of the total area under rice. The average productivity of lowland rice ranges from 1.0 to 1.2 tonnes per ha. as against the national average of 1.9 tonnes per ha. The lowland rice ecology depending on the water regimes may be further categorized into three subecologies as detailed below: Shallow lowland rice: water depth below 50 cm. Semi-deepwater rice: water depth between 50-100 cm. Deepwater rice: water depth more than 100 cm in the field. The soil of this subecology is poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter but is rich in potassium. Deepwater rice areas are prone to seasonal floods and duration of which varies from year to year. (iii) Coastal saline rice Rice areas close to east and west coasts suffer from salinity. Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal on the east coast and Gujarat and Maharashtra on the west coast have sizeable saline rice areas. Total rice area under coastal salinity rice is estimated to be about 1 million ha, which accounts for 2.3% of area under rice cultivation. The coastal saline soils often show deficiency of iron and zinc, which cause chlorosis and reduced tillering. Average yield in coastal saline area is about 1 tonne as against the average national yield of 1.9 tonnes per ha. (iv) Cold/ hill rice Such rice areas lie in the hill regions comprising Jammu and Kashmir, Uttranchal and Northeastern hill states. Area under rice in cold/ hill region is about 1 million ha which accounts for 2.3% of total area under rice. Average yield is about 1.1 tonnes per ha as against the average national yield of 1.9 tonnes per ha. Major productivity constraints of these areas are low temperature, blast, drought spell and very short span of cropping season. Because of the rolling topography in these areas, bench terracing is being followed, which limits the use of fertilizers and improved agronomical practices. In these areas the crop is invariably affected by low temperature in the early stage and sometimes at the flowering stage resulting in sterility and hence, reduced yields.
SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 13
(c) Cropping Patterns India has a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and accordingly cropping patterns vary widely from region to region and to a lesser extent from year to year. For devising meaningful cropping patterns, it is necessary to divide the country into homogeneous regions based on physical, climatological or agronomic features. Soil and the climate being the important factors for developing region specific cropping patterns and can be taken as the criteria for crop zoning. The cropping pattern in different agroclimatic zones has been devised and adopted by farmers based on their long experience, suitability of soil, profitability, availability of market and industrial infrastructure and period of water available. Cropping patterns include broadly relay/sequential cropping, inter cropping and mixed cropping. With the introduction of early maturing and high yielding varieties of rice, intensification and diversification of cropping around rice could be substantially increased in the irrigated ecology as well as shallowland and rainfed ecologies. While improving the productivity, such efforts have helped in increasing the farm income as well. In the rainfed upland and other moisture limiting/excess ecologies aimed at risk distribution and income enhancement intercropping of rice with appropriate companion crops has helped the farmers to improve the productivity. Some of the rice-based cropping patterns being followed in different rice ecologies as under: (i) Rice-rice: This cropping pattern is practiced in the traditional rice growing areas having high rainfall and assured irrigation in summer months, particularly, in soils, which have high water holding capacity and low rate of infiltration. In some canal-irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu, a cropping pattern of 300% intensity is followed. Choice of medium early and early maturing photoinsensitive varieties makes such intensification possible. (ii) Rice-cereals (other than rice): This cropping pattern is being followed in areas where water is not adequate for taking the third rice crop in summer. Instead of rice, early maturing and less water requiring ragi, maize or jowar is chosen. (iii) Rice-pulses/oilseeds: In the areas where, there is water scarcity, instead of a cereal crop in summer, short duration pulse crop like blackgram or greengram is preferred. Depending on the water availability, whereas rice followed by either chickpea or mustard is the pattern in the north, rice followed by blackgram (as in Krishna district at Andhra Pradesh) in south is the practice. (iv) Rice-groundnut: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are following this cropping pattern. After harvesting rice crop, groundnut is planted in summer. (v) Rice-wheat: It is the predominant cropping pattern in north and north-western (Indogangetic plains) parts of the country. Over 9 million hectares is under this cropping pattern. (vi) Rice-wheat-pulses: This cropping pattern is being followed in the alluvial soil belt of northern states. After harvesting of wheat, greengram and cowpea are grown as fodder. Besides, cowpea is grown in red and yellow soils of Orissa and blackgram is grown in the black soils. (vii) Rice-toria-wheat: This cropping pattern is commonly followed in northern parts of the country. This is possible because of very early maturing toria varieties adapted to late sown conditions.
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(viii) Rice-fish farming system: Fields with sufficient water retaining capacity for a long period and areas free from heavy flooding are suitable for rice-fish farming system. Small and marginal farmers in rainfed lowland rice areas in the eastern states are following this system. They raise a modest crop of traditional low yielding rice varieties during rainy (kharif) season along with fish. In order to improve the economic conditions of these farmers, the Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack has developed productive rice+fish farming system. There are two farming systems involving rice and fish. They are rice+fish farming system, which is generally followed in the semideep water and deep-water ecologies in the eastern states and fish after rice (rice-fish) in coastal Kerala, West Bengal etc. Steps have already been taken to popularize rice-fish farming system in low land areas to increase the production and productivity of crops and thereby improving the economic conditions of the resource poor farmers of these areas.
SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 15
SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA

India is rich in rice diversity by virtue of its north-eastern region being on the periphery of the centre of origin of rice on one hand and having many centres of diversity (secondary centres) on the other. It exists in terms of thousands of landraces of Asian cultivar at the centre of origin/ centres of diversity; hundreds of improved cultivars adapted to varied agro-ecologies and closely related wild/weedy species constituting rice germplasm in India. Natural and human selection of cultivars over centuries for varied agro-ecological conditions; viz., altitude, temperature, rainfall, soil type etc. have substantially contributed to the diversity. It is estimated that number of landraces of rice cultivars available in the country is between 75,000 and 1,00,000. Some of these landraces were introduced since mid sixties. Most of these accessions have either already been collected and conserved in gene banks or have been discarded by farmers in preference to improved varieties. All the collections now in the gene banks are not unique. It is believed that 30 to 40 per cent of these may be duplicates. With the establishment of the ICAR in 1929, systematic research was initiated for rice improvement. Rice research stations were established in all the agro-climatic zones of the country. These rice research stations collected local varieties and improved some of them mostly through pureline selection and a few through hybridization. The improvement was for higher yield, desired maturity and grain quality, and adaptation to various ecologies and resistance to biotic stresses. Varieties like GEB24 (yield, quality), T141 (yield), SR26B (salinity resistant), FR13A & FR43B (flood resistant), Chinguru Boro (deepwater), Basmati370 (quality) etc. are outcome of such early efforts. Due to increased population pressure mainly after the World War II coupled with limitation of available land, production efforts have to be accelerated through yield increase in Asia, where rice is the staple food for 90 per cent of the population The availability of chemical fertilizers and their successful application to rice crop in Japan prompted FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) to launch japonica x indica hybridization project for south and Southeast Asia in the fifties. It was not, however, successful because of the problem of hybrid sterility characteristic to inter-subspecific crosses. The discovery of the semidwarf mutant, viz., Dee-geo-woo-gen and development of high yielding first semidwarf variety (Taichung Native-1) using it as source of short stature became a landmark in rice improvement in south and South-east Asia including India. IR8 was bred at IRRI and many semidwarf rice varieties have been bred in India utilising developing gene sources like DGWG as parents. More than 600 high yielding dwarf rice varieties have been released in India during 1965-2000. These short statured varieties are responding well to higher doses of fertiliser application and have helped in raising the genetic yield level and thereby production of rice. These varieties are photoinsensitive and hence, are adapted to all the rice seasons. The whole day neutral nature of these varieties enables 2 or 3 crops of rice in a year and hence high productivity/unit area/year. Presence of rice crop round the year has facilitated increased pest/disease incidence; resulting in recurrent crop losses. In breeding efforts to contain the pests, though helped greatly, selection pressure prompted coevolution of them as well resulting in many virulent races/biotypes. (a) Aromatic Rice Germplasm India is also known for its quality rices, like Basmati and other fine grain aromatic types
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grown in north-west regions of the country, which have been enjoying patronage although as evident from various ancient texts and historical accounts including in the old Indian scriptures like Krishi Sukt and Sushrta (400 BC), Ain-e-Akbari (1590 AD) and Heer Rabjha (1725 to 1798) (Table 3).
Table 3: Indigenous high quality non-aromatic and aromatic rice (landraces or pure line selection from landraces) types in India State Andhra Pradesh Non-aromatic Aswani Karthi Vadlu, Atragada, Kichidi Sannalu, Krishna Katakalu, Maharajabhogam, Punasa Akkullu Aijani (Mahsuri), Guniribora (Glutinous), Kakua Bao, Lalahu, Manoharsali, Rangaduria Black Gora, BR13, BR14, BR34, Brown Gora, Kessore, Kolaba, T141, NP130 Aromatic Kaki Rekhalu (HR59), Sukhdas (HR47)
Assam
Badshahbhog, Malbhog, Prasadbhog
Bihar
Badshahbhog, BR8, Mohanbhog, NP49, NP114, Ram Tulsi, Tulsimanjari Kalhapur scented, Kamod 118, Pankhari 203, Zeerasal Basmati 370, Taraori Basmati Desi Basmati 23
Gujarat
Kolamba 42, Sathe 34-36, Sukhvel 20, Zeerasal 280, Zinya 31 Jhona 221, Jhona 349 Dundar 43, Lalnakanda, Phulpattas 72, Ramjawain 100 CH988, CH1039, Niver, Siga, T137, T138 Allur Sanna, Antersal, Bangarutheega, Dodda byra, Kare kagga, S1092, SR26B Cheruvirippu, Pokkali, Ptb2, Ptb12, Ptb15, Ptb18, Ptb21, Ptb33, Red Triveni, Vytilla Nungi, Pandhri Luchai 16, Safari 17, Sariya, Laloo 14 Bhura rata, Chimansel, Kala rata, Kolam, Kolamba 184, Kolipi, Zinya 149
Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka
Basmati 370, Muskh Budgi, Ranbir Basmati Kagasali, Sindigi local
Kerala
Jeerakasala, Gandhkasala
Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra
Baspatri, Chattri, Chinoor, Dubraj, Gopalbhog, Hansraj, Kali Kamod Ambemohar 102, Ambemohar 157, Ambemohar 159, Jirasel, Kamod, Krishnasal, Pankhari 203 Badshahbhog, Sel T812
Orissa
Bahyayahuynda, FR13A, FR43B, Nonabokra, Rangolata, Ratnachudi, T90 (Machha Kanta), T141 (Soruch Inamali)
Punjab Rajasthan
Jhona 349, Lalnakanda, Phulpattas Batika, Dhaniasal, Pathria, Segra, Sutar, Tukri Adt8, Adt10, Anaikomban, Co25, GEB24, Kar Samba, Katti Samba, Kichdi Samba, TKM6 Adamchini, Anjee, Bambasa, Bansi, Dehula, Jaisuria, Jalamagna, N22, NP130, Tapachini, T100, T136
Basmati 217, Basmati 370 Kala Badal, Kamod, Nawabi kolam
Tamil Nadu
Jeeraga Samba
Uttar Pradesh /Uttaranchal
Badshapasand, Basmati (Type 3), Basmati 370, Bindli, Duniapet, Hansraj, Kalanamak, Kalasukhdas, Lalmati, Sakkarchini, Tilakchandan, Vishnuparag Badshah pasand, Badshahbhog, Basmati, Gopalbhog, Govindabhog, Kaminibhog, Kataribhog, Randhunipagal, Sitabhog
West Bengal
Badkalamkati, Bhasmanik, Charnock, Churnakati, Dhairal, Dular, Latisail, MC282, Nonabokra, Nonarasmsail, Nizersail, Patnai 23, Seetasail
Source: Siddiq et al., 2005; Sharma and Rao, 2004 Note: For the detailed description of different rice varieties released in different states of India, refer Sharma and Rao, 2004
(b) Rice Germplasm with Medicinal Value Earliest Indian records also list many rice cultivars like Kalavarihi (nourishing rice) and Kalama, Pundarika, Panduka, Shakunahrit, Sugandhaka, Kardamaka, Kanchanaka, Mahasali, Mahishamastaka and Lodhrapurshpaka (medicinal value) (Chunekar and Pandey, 1986). Ayurvedic treatise (Indian Materia Medica) also speaks of varieties like Njavara and Gathuhan for treatment of arthritis. Rice collection service done in Chhattisgarh area led to the identification of many varieties of curative value popular among folklore (Table 4).
Table 4: Rice varieties of Chattisgarh region reported to possess medicinal and health value Variety Alcha Laicha Gathuhan Karhani Bassior Nagkesar Kalimooch Regbhaddar Serei Meharaji Medicinal Value Curing pimples, curing small boils of infants (by feeding the lactating mother with cooked rice) Preventing unborn children from contracting (by feeding the pregnant woman with cooked rice) Treatment of rheumatism Treatment of paralysis Relief to headache (by inhalation of fumes of rice bran); epilepsy Cure to lung disease Relief to skin problems (external application of plant extract) Treatment of gastric ailments Tonic for general weakness Tonic for women after delivery Source: Das and Oudhia, 2001; Siddiq and Shobharani, 1998
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Boluses of cooked Njavara rice are used for Navarakizhi, treatment of all skeletal and muscular diseases, paralysis, seiatica etc. in Kerala. (c) Hybrid Rice Cultivars Hybridization is one of the most commonly used breeding methods for improvement mainly of open pollinated and often cross pollinated crops. Rice, a strictly self-pollinated one, has been the first crop, where hybrid technology could be successfully developed and commercially exploited. The phenomenon of heterosis was first reported by Jones (1926). But it took almost five decades for its commercial exploitation. China is the first country to capitalize on hybrid rice technology. In China the first hybrid rice was released for the commercial cultivation in 1976 (Yuan, 1994). Hybrid rice technology following plant type-based high yielding varieties helped to raise the genetic yield level by 15 to 20 per cent, beyond what is achievable in semi-dwarf inbred varieties (Bharaj et al., 1996). Though sources of male sterility and fertility restoration could be found, commercial hybrid seed production posed problems because of very low percentage outcrossing. This limitation could be overcome by manipulation of pollination control mechanisms resulting in enhanced cross-pollination. Unlike in normal rice varieties, stigma in male sterile lines remains receptive relatively for long hours to receive pollen. This physiological adaptation of male sterile plants has also helped; besides supplementary pollination methods realize high percentage seed setting. Research to develop hybrid technology in rice in India although was initiated during 1970s. It could be intensified since 1989 with the launching of a mission mode project, sponsored by ICAR. Now the project Development and use of hybrid rice technology operates as a national research network involving 12 centres all over the country, coordinated by Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad (Siddiq et al., 1994; Krishnaiah and Shobharani, 1997). With the concerted research work, the country developed a dozen rice hybrids each from public and private sectors within a short period. The salient features of some of these hybrids released are given in the Table 5.
Table 5: Hybrid rice varieties released in different states of India No 1. Hybrid Variety APHR-1 Year of Release 1994 Parentage IR-58025A/ Vajram IR-62829A/ MTU-9992 IR-62829A/ IR-10198 IR-58025A/ IR-9761 IR-2829A/ Ajaya IR-58025A/ IR-40750 Recommended for the State Andhra Pradesh Duration Yield (Days) (T/Ha) 130-135 7.14 Characteristics Suitable for uplands of coastal Andhra Pradesh. Grains are LS. Grains are MS, resistant to the pest gall midge. Suitable for irrigated areas. Grains are LB, suitable for Boro season. Grains are LS, mild aromatic and resistant to blast disease.
2. 3.
APHR-2 CORH-1
1994 1994
Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu
120-125 110-115
7.52 6.08
4. 5. 6.
KRH-1 CNRH-3 DRRH-1
1994 1995 1996
Karnataka West Bengal Andhra Pradesh
120-125 125-130 125-130
6.02 7.49 7.30
7.
KRH-2
1996
IR-58025A/ KMR-3
Karnataka
130-135
7.40
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Pant Sankar 1997 Dhan-1 CORH-2 1998 ADTRH-1 1998 Sahyadri Narendra Shankar Dhan-2 PHB-71 1998 1998
IR-58025A/ UPRI-93-133 IR-58025A/ C-20R IR-58025A/ IR-66 IR-8025A/ BR-827-35 IR-8025A/ NDR-3026
Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh
115-120 120-125 115-120 125-130 125-130
6.80 6.25 7.10 6.15 6.15
Grains are LB, resistant to the pest, BPH and blast disease, suitable for irrigated areas. Grains are MB. Grains are LS. Grains are LS.
13.
1997
Haryana, UP, Tamil Nadu Plains of Uttar Pradesh Eastern and some parts of Southern India
130-135
7.86
14. 15.
UPRH-27 PA-6201
1997 2000
IR-58025A/ UPRI-92-133
115-120 125-130
6.80 6.18
Grains are LS, resistant to the pest, BPH. Grains are LS, resistant to the pest, BPH and blast disease. Aromatic Basmati Hybrid. Plant height: 100120 cms, Leaf : 24x1.5 cms, 1000 grain weight22g Kernel : 6.21x2.06 mm,L/B ratio : 3.01, NonLodging, N responsive Grains : MS, suitable for well drained, irrigated condition, resistant to neck and rice tungro virus.
16. 17.
Pusa RH-10 Hybrid6444
2001 2001
Pusa- 6A/ PRR-78 6CO-2/ 6MO-5
Delhi, Punjab, 125 Uttranchal Andhra Pradesh, 135-140 Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tripura, and Uttranchal
6-8
BPH = Brown plant hopper; LB=Long bold; LS=Long slender; MB=Medium bold; MS= Medium slender Source: Rice Status Paper, 2005
(d) Exotic Germplasm More than 90,000 accessions have been imported and made available to researchers and farmers in India (Singh et al., 2001a). Introductions from IRRI during 1960s have led to green revolution.
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The accessions introduced included high yielding dwarf varieties such as Taichung (Native)-1 and IR-8. Some important trait specific introductions are listed below (Table 6).
Table 6: Abiotic and biotic stress resistant exotic accessions Traits Abiotic Stress Cold tolerance Salinity tolerance Drought tolerance Biotic Stress Green leaf hopper resistance Leaf folder resistance Stem borer resistance Blast resistance Sheath blight resistance Bacterial blight resistance Tungro virus resistance Accessions EC 121003 EC 122935 to EC 122953, EC 232900 to EC 233000 EC 201878 to EC 201975 EC 309699 EC 121828 to EC 121853 EC 121824 to EC 121825, EC 199465 to EC 199466 EC 121807 to EC121815, EC 307145 to EC 307161 EC 199465 to EC 199466 EC 121816 to EC 121823, EC 201878 to EC 201975 EC 161320 to EC 161346 Source: Siddiq et al., 2005
(e) Germplasm Sources for Various Traits Characterization of germplasm based on easily identifiable and stable morpho-physiological traits has enabled establishment of the identity of germplasm for economic importance. However, characterization is largely qualitative and less information is available on resistance/tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Characterization of wild rice germplasm has revealed that most of the wild species could be potential donors for a range of traits (Table 7). Table 7: Useful traits in wild species
Trait Abiotic stress Drought tolerance/avoidance Shade tolerance Adaptation to aerobic soils Biotic stress Brown plant hopper resistance Green leaf hopper resistance White backed plant hopper resistance Yellow stem borer resistance Blast resistance Sheath blight resistance Bacterial leaf blight resistance Rice grassy stunt virus resistance Other useful traits Cytoplasmic male sterility High bio-mass Elongation ability Species O. australiensis, O. barthii, O. longistaminata O. granulata, O. minuta, O. officinalis O. granulata, O. meyeriana O. officinalis, O. australiensis, O. minuta, O. brachyantha, O. granulata, O. punctata, O. eichengeri O. eichengeri, O. minuta, O. officinalis O. eichengeri, O. minuta, O. officinalis O. brachyantha, O. granulata, O. ridleyi O. minuta, O. ridleyi O. barthii, O. latifolia, O. minuta, O. nivara, O. rufipogon O. barthii, O. brachyantha, O. granulata, O. minuta, O. ridleyi O. nivara O. rufipogon O. alta, O. grandiglumis, O. latifolia O. meridionalis Source: Siddiq et al., 2005
Scientists have put on their efforts to broaden the genepool of cultivated rice through introgression of genes from wild species for tolerance to major biotic and abiotic stresses and improved quality characteristics. The first example of transfer from a wild species is the introgression of a gene for Rice grassy stunt virus resistance from O. nivara to cultivated rice varieties. A summary of genes transferred from wild species to cultivated rice is given in the following table.
Table 8: Introgression of genes of wild Oryza species into cultivated rice (O. sativa) Trait Brown plant hopper resistance Donor Oryza Species O. officinalis Gene bph11(t) bph12(t) Qbp1 Qbp2 Bph10 Pi9(t) Xa23(t)
White backed plant hopper resistance Blast resistance Bacterial blight resistance
Grassy stunt resistance Tungro tolerance Cytoplasmic male sterility
O. minuta O. latifolia O. australiensis O. officinalis O. minuta O. rufipogon O. longistaminata O. officinalis O. minuta O. latifolia O. australiensis O. brachyantha O. nivara O. rufipogon O. sativa f. spontanea O. perennis O. glumaepatula O. rufipogon O. nivara O. rufipogon O. rufipogon
Tolerance to aluminium toxicity Yield enhancing loci
QTL yld1 yld2 Source: Brar and Khush, 2003
Wild species carry several useful genes for rice improvement but they are associated with several weedy traits such as grain shattering, poor plant type, poor grain characteristics and low seed yield. Besides, several incompatibility factors limit the transfer of useful genes from wild species into cultivated species. To achieve precise transfer of genes from wild to cultivated species, strategies involving combination of conventional plant breeding methods with tissue culture and molecular approaches have become important. A systematic evaluation conducted through the efforts of Directorate of Rice Research (DRR), Hyderabad and a decade long ICAR sponsored network project for germplasm evaluation of rice facilitated multi-location and location-specific hotspot screening of rice germplasm for various biotic stresses.
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Table 9: Important donors identified at Directorate of Rice Research for resistance to various insect-pests and diseases, abiotic stresses and yield supporting physiological attributes Traits Insect-pests Yellow stem borer Gall midge Brown plant hopper Green leaf hopper White backed plant hopper Leaf folder Diseases Blast Sheath blight Important Donors ADT2, ARC10257, ARC10598, ASD10, Ptb15, Ptb18, SLO17, TKM6 ARC5984, Bengle, Bhumansam, Eswarakora, Velluthachira, Leaung 152, NHTA8, Siam 29, W1263 ARC6650, Babawee, Chemban, Co25, HR19, Mudgo, Ptb18, Ptb19, Ptb21, Ptb33, Ratu Heenati ADT14, ARC10313, ARC6006, ARC7012, ASD7, Co9, Pankhari 203, Ptb8, SLO4 ARC10239, ARC11316, Chempar, HR22, Kalubmati, N22, Senawee, WC1240 ARC10982, GEB24, Ptb33, TMK6 Carreon, Co4, Dawn, Raminad Strain 3, Tadukan, Tetep ARC10531, ARC10532, ARC10635, ARC15362, Athebu, BCP3, Buhjan, KRC355, KRC356, Laka, Nangmons 4, OS4, Phoure l, Ramadja, Saibham, Suduwee, T141, Ta-Poo-cho-z BJ1, Cemposelak, Chinsura Boro II, DV85, Java 14, Lacrose/ Zenith Nira (LZN), O.longistaminata, Sayaphal, Sigadis, TKM6, Wase-Aikoku Ambemohar 159, ARC10599, ARC11554, ARC12981, ARC14320, ARC14766, ARC15570, Kataribhog, Ptb18, Ptb21 ARC13820, ARC13901 ARC10372, BR23 (White gora), Brown gora, Chanda 2, DJ5, Dular, EB17, Gajgaur Dhani, Goradhan, Kinandang Patong, Lalnakanda, MAU Sd10, MAU Sel.9, N22, Nandi, Prage 147, Rdn185-2, Rikuto Norin, SLO16, Tuljapur 1, Tuljapur 28, Tuljapur 34 Ambemohar 157, Batkpahi, Gajepsali, K540, Kolapakhi, Lothabar, Malkolam, Nakarasali, Rajipsali, Z63 Chettiviruppu, Chootupokkali, Nonasail, Patnai 23, Pokkali, SR26B Boku, Boyan, Bayyahunda, HbDW8 AC4491, Mahsuri, Ptb10. Mahsuri, NS1281, Pankaj, T90 AC1491, BAM3, Ptb10, T141 B76, Patnai 23 Intan, Manosarovar, Pankaj, Swarnaprabha Badshahog, Rupsail T141 IR42-25323, IR29912-56-3, IR29912-56-3-1 Source: Siddiq et al., 2005
Bacterial leaf blight
Rice tungro virus Rice grassy stunt virus Abiotic stresses Drought
Low light Salinity Submergence Physiological attributes Better photosynthetic efficiency Better photosynthetic efficiency (under low light conditions) Better utilization of solar energy Low photorespiration High dry matter production High density grain High harvest index High fertilizer use efficiency
The large variability in rice genetic resources has led to identification of several donor sources suited to specific and changing agro-climatic conditions, having resistance/tolerance to biotic/abiotic stresses and with enhanced yield potential. A great source of strength for rice improvement programme has been the rich germplasm collections available in the gene bank of IRRI as well as in the national gene banks of several countries, including India, China and Japan. Extensive use of diverse donor sources mostly in the improved genetic backgrounds has led to the evolution of nearly 632 high yielding varieties in India (DRR, 2001). Of these 314 varieties are suitable for irrigated ecology, 84 for rainfed uplands, 44 for rainfed lowland and deep-water ecologies, 33 for high altitudes, and 15 for saline and alkaline soils. In addition, 19 aromatic slender grain varieties have also been released. Many of these varieties combine specific and multiple resistances against major insect-pests and diseases; and tolerance to cold, drought, unfavourable soils, etc. (Table 10).
Table 10: High-yielding rice varieties resistant to various biotic and abiotic stresses Stress Biotic stress Stem borer ADT44, ADT(R)3, Bha Lum 2, Dandi, Leima Phou 1, Mugad Sugandha, Pantdhan 16, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, Rashmi, Ratna, Saket 4, Sasyasree, Shah Sarang 1, Swetha, Vikas ADT(R)45, Bharathidasan, CR1002, Cottondora Sannalu, Deepti, Gauri, Godavari, HKR120, IR36, Jawahar, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, Jyothi, Kanakam, Kartika, Nandyal Sannalu, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, SKL 3-11-25-3036, Surya, Tholakari ADT 38, Bharathidasan, Bhudeb, Dandi, HKR120, HRI120, PR109, PMK (R)3, Sarasa, Shanthi, Swetha, Sumati, Surya, Udaya ADT38, IR24, IR50, Samridhi, Shakti, Vikramarya ADT38, Anjali, ASD18, Asha, CU44, Gauri, IR36, Jagtial Mahsuri, Jagtial Sannalu, Kakatiya, Lalat, MDU3, Oragallu, Pantdhan 16, Phalguna, PKV Makarand, Pothana, PY6, Rajendradhan 202, Rashmi, Ratnagiri 1, Ratnagiri 2, Samlei, Sarathi, SKL8, Sumati, Surekha, Varalu, Sagarsamba, Pelavadlu Apporva, Bamaleswari, Bha Lum 1, Bha Lum 2, Bharani, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas dhan 110, Birsamati, BR2656-9-3-1, CO47, CSR23, Dandi, Dhanrasi, Harsha, IET16075, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, KHP5, Kohshar, KRH2, Krishna Hamsa, Leima phou 1, Mugad Sugandha, PA102, Palamdhan 957, Pant sugandha dhan 115, Pantdhan 16, Pinakini, PKV Makarand, PNR519, Pusa Sugandha 3, Rajarajan, Rashmi, Rasi, Rasmi, Shah Sarang 1, Sharavati, SKL30-11-25-3036, SKL8, Somasila, Sravani, Sukardhan1, Sumati, Swetha, Tikkana, Vandana, Vasumati, Vedagiri, Vivekdhan 82, VL Dhan 8, Yamini ADT39, Ajaya, Bamaleswari, Bapatla Sannalu, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas dhan 109, Birsa vikas dhan 110, CR1002, CSR23, Dandi, Dhansari,Godavari, HKR120, IET16075, IR36, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, Karjat 1, Krand, Narendra 2, Narendra Usar 3, PR110, PR111, PR113, PR114, PR115, PR116, PR4141, Pusa 1121, Rajendra Mahsuri 1, Ramakrishna, SKL3-11-25-30-36, Swetha, Tholakari, Vandana ASD15, Bhudeb, Dhanrasi, IR34, IR50, Jagabandhu, Pusa RH10, Ratna, Saket 4, Srinivas, Swetha Varieties
Brown plant hopper
White backed plant hopper Green leafhopper Gall midge
Blast
Bacterial leaf blight
Rice tungro virus
24
Sheath blight Multiple resistance
ADT39, ASD18, Asha, Bhanja, Ratnagiri13, Salivahana, TKM 9 ADT38, Ananga, ASD18, Asha, Bha Lum 2, Bhudeb, Birsa vikas dhan 110, Dandi, Dhansari, Godavari, IET16075, IR36, Jagabandhu, Jagtial Mahsuri, Kshira, Lalat, Narendra 2, Pantdhan 10, Pantdhan 16, Rajendra, Rashmi, Shaktiman, SKL8, SKL30-11-25-30-36, Sumati, Suraksha, Swetha Bhavani , CSR6, CSR10, CSR27, CST1, CST23, Dandi, Narendra 1, Narendra Usar 3, Panvel 1, Panvel 2, Panvel 3, SLR51214, Sumati, TRY(R)2, Vikas, Vytilla 2, Vytilla 4, Yamini Barkat, Himalaya 741, Himdhan, Pantdhan 957, Surarandhan 1, Tawi, Himalaya 1, Vivekdhan 62, VL Dhan 16, VL Dhan 39, VL Dhan 163, VL Dhan 221 Aditya, Annada, Ashwini, Bha Lum 1, Bha Lum 2, Birsa vikas dhan 108, Birsa vikas dhan 109, Birsa vikas dhan 110, Chingam, Danteswari, GAUR1, Govind, GR2, GR3, GR5, GR8, Harsha, Heera, Kshira, Narendra 80, PMK(R)3, Purva, Rashmi, Rasi, Ratnagiri 71-1, Ratnagiri 73-1-1, Ravi, Sabari, Sakoli 6, Sarjoo 49, Sarjoo 50, Somasila, Vandana, Varalu Source: Siddiq et al., 2005
Abiotic stress Salinity/ Alkalinity
Low temperature Drought
Strategic research towards changing plant architecture and, thereby, enhancing the physiological efficiency was initiated with search for sources potential enough to enhance genetic yield level. Evaluation of genetic resources, available with the national and international institutions, aimed at identifying sources for various traits needed for development of new plant type. This has resulted in the isolation of several indica/ japonica cultivars of promise as listed in Table 11.
Table 11: Donors for various traits being used for developing new plant type Trait Heavy panicle High density grains High harvest index Low photorespiration High photosynthetic efficiency Prolonged grain filling Short stature Slow leaf senescence Sturdy stem High translocation efficiency Indica/ japonica Cultivars Darinagan, Djawa serang, G1291, G1298, Ketan gebat, Badshabhog, Roupsail T141, Vijaya B76, Patnai 23 AC4491, Bam 3, Mahsuri, NS1281, Ptb10, T141, T90 BG380, BG90-2, Darinagan, IR65601-10-1-2,IR 65740-ACI-3 IR5, MD2, Shend Nung 889-366 G110, Pusa 1021, Pusa 1266, indica x japonica derivatives Gharbaran, Pusa 44-37, Sengkeu, Sipapak, Sirah Barch Ptb10 Source: Swaminathan, 2002
The rice improvement research operating in the country has generated many materials, which give good performance but do not show the required superiority to get released as cultivars. In addition, there are germplasm, developed and/or identified by scientists with one or more outstanding traits such as new sources of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, unique quality features, male sterility, induced mutants, cytogenetic stocks, etc. These germplasm may serve as
genetic stocks in crop improvement programmes or are of academic importance. The ICAR has developed a system of germplasm registration with NBPGR as the nodal institute to recognize the accomplishments and efforts of scientists who identified or developed them, and to encourage the sharing of such germplasm with other rice researchers. (f) Indian Rice Varieties Released in Other Countries There had been a liberal, exchange of genetic material among rice researchers around the globe particularly facilitated by the IRRI coordinated INGER programme. Many India bred varieties tested in the INGER nurseries have been directly released for general cultivation in other countries (Table 12). In all 33 elite breeding lines developed in India have been released as 46 varieties around the world. They include 25 in Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 in South Asia, 5 in Latin America and the Caribbean islands, 3 in South-East Asia, 2 in West and North Africa and one variety in East Africa. In addition, several elite breeding lines generated in India and identified to be promising in the AICRIP have also been used in many countries as donor parents for traits like insect-pest resistance, yield and quality. Global adoption of so many varieties of Indian origin gives a true measure of strength of Indian rice breeding programme.
Table 12: Rice cultivars developed in India and released in other countries Country of Release Afghanistan Afghanistan Afghanistan Benin Benin Bhutan Brazil Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon China P.R. Cote dIvoire (Ivory coast) Dominican Republic Ghana Iran Iraq Name/ Designation CR 44-11 Cauvery Padma CO38 RAU4072-13 Barkat Seshu Vikram RP4-2 Vijaya Savithri OR 142-99 Jaya M 114 Jaya Parentage TKM6 x IR8 TKM 6 x TN1 T141 x TN1 IR8 x CO25 IR1833-2086-3 x Mahsuri Shinei x China 971 IR24 x T141 IR8 x Siam 29 T90 x IR8 T90 x IR8 Pankaj x Jagannath Pankaj x Sigadis TN1 x T141 Mahsuri mutant 3628 TN1 x T141 Name Given RAU 407 Barkat Sante-pheap 3 8085 Year of Release 1975 1975 1975 1991 1992 1984 1979 1985 1997 1992 1977 1981 1986 1982 1982 Ecosystem Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Rainfed
IR2153-276-1 IR1541-102-6-3 x Juma 62 -10-PR-509 IR24*4//O.nivara Vikram IR8 x Siam 29 Afife/GR 17 Sona GEB24 x TN1 Amol 3 RP 2095-5-8-31 Vikram x Andrewsali -
26
Kenya Malawai Mali Mali Mali Mauritiana Myanmar Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Pakistan Paraguay Paraguay Senegal Senegal Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Togo Venezuela Vietnam Zambia
AD9246 Kitish Rasi Jaya Vijaya Jaya Mahsuri mutant CR 123-23 Rasi K39-96-1-1-1-2 IR 2298PLPB-3-2-1-1B IR 3941-4PLP2B Kitish Kitish R22-2-10-1 Rasi Jaya BIET360 Rasi RP 143-4 L 5P23 Sabarmati (BC5/55) Rasi PR 106 Jaya RTN 500-5-1
ADT31 x AD198 BU1 x CR115 TN1 x CO29 TN1 x T141 T90 x IR8 TN1 x T141 Dunghansali x Jayanti TN1 x CO29 CH1039 x IR58019-2-3-3 CICA4 x KULU CR126-42-5 x IR2061213 BU1 x CR115 BU1 x CR115 IR22 x Sigadis TN1 x CO29 TN1 x T141 IR8 x CH45 TN1 x CO29 IR8 x HR 19/ IR 8 GEB24 x T(N)1 TN1 x Bas370// Bas370 TN1 x CO29 IR8 x Peta 5// Belle Patna TN1 x T141 IR8 x RTN24
Senga IET 1444 Ma Naw Thu Kha Durga Bindeswari Khumal 3 Himali Kanchen DR 82 CEA 1 CEA 3 Jaya Katrain 1 Subamati Araure 3 -
1993 1984 1978 1977 1978 1981 1982 1982 1984 1989 1989 1981 1986 1984 1984 1978 1984 -
Lowland Irrigated Rainfed Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Upland Upland Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Rainfed lowland Irrigated Irrigated Upland Irrigated Irrigated Irrigated
Source: Prasad et al., 2001
(g) Dominant Weed Flora in Rice Fields in India Rice is grown under different agro-climatic and management conditions. The weed flora also varies accordingly. The dominant weed species found in upland rice culture are listed in table below.
Table 13 a: Dominant weed species found in upland rice culture State Andhra Pradesh Bihar Delhi Karnataka N. E. Region Dominant Weed Species Amaranthus spinosus, Celosia argentea, Euphorbia heterophylla, Panicum sp. Alternifollia sp., Caesulia axillaris, Digeria sp., Physalis minima, Rungia repens Alternaria sessilis, Amaranthus gracilis, Cyperus diformis, Digeria arvensis, Justica sp., Leptochloa chinensis Dinebera retroflexa, Paspalum conjugatum, Portulaca oleracea, Spilanthus alba Amaranthus spinosus, Bidens pilosa, Boerhaavia hispida, Eichornia colonum, Eupatorium odoratum, Galinsoga parviflora, Mimosa pudica, Phyllanthus niruri, Setaria pumila Chloris barbata, Croton balpandianum, C. sparciflorus, Dinebera arabica Digitaria longifolia, Elytrophorus arteculata, Eragrostis interrupta, Setaria glauca
Tamil Nadu West Bengal
Table 13 b: Dominant weeds found in puddled direct seeded and transplanted rice States Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Madhya Pradesh Dominant Weeds Cyperus difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea, Jussia suffructicosa, Marsilia minuta, Panicum sp. Cuphea balsamona, Fissendocarpa linifolia, Hydrolea zeylanica, Panicum colonum, Paspalum conjugatum, Rotala indica Caesulia axillaris, Cyperus sp., Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Eclipta alba, E. hirta, Panicum repens, Rungia repense Ammania baccifera, Caesulia axillaris, Cynotis sp. Ludwigia octovalvis, Panicum colonum, Sporobolus indicus Ageratum conyzoides, Panicum elatum, Setaria glauca Cyperus difformis, Lindernia parviflora, Panicum repens Ammania baccifera, Caesulia axillaris, Cephalandra indica, Chloris barbata, Commelina benghalensis, Cynodon dactylon, Cynotis axillaris, Cyperus sp., Dinebra arabica, Elusine indica, Euphorbia sp., Lagasca mollis, Paspalum distichum Commelina benghalensis, Eclipta alba, Leptochloa chinensis Aeschynomene americana, Commelina benghalensis, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus esculentus, Ipomea aquatica, Marselia quadrifoliata, Oxalis corniculata Caesulia axillaris, Ischaemum rugosum Ammania baccifera, Cyperus difformis, C. iria, Digitaria sanguinalis, Eclipta prostrata, Fimbristylis sp., Marsilea minuta, Paspalum distictium Fimbrisyilis sp., Lippia nodiflora, Paspalum fasciculatum, Phyllanthus niruri Eichornia colonum, Ludwigia parviflora, Monochoria vaginalis, Oldenlandia dichotoma, Paspalum scorbiculatum, Sphenocdlea zeylanica
New Delhi Orissa
Punjab Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
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Table 13 c: Weed species commonly found in rainfed lowland rice Assam Bihar Himachal Pradesh Tamil Nadu Echinochloa crusgalli, Fimbristylis miliacea, Jussia sufforocticosa, Ludwigia octovalvis, Monochoria vaginalis, Scirpus sp. Chara sp., Cyperus difformis, Echinochloa, E. crusgalli, Ipomea reptants, Paspalum scorbiculatum, Spirogyra sp. Cyperus rotundus, Eichornia colonum, Panicum sp., Paspalum parapalodes, Setaria glauca Ammanea baccifera, Cyperus iria, C. difformis, Echornia colonum, Eclipta alba, Fimbristylis miliacea, Marsilea quadrifoliata, Monochoria vaginalis, Scirpus mucronatus, Sphaeranllus indicus Chara zeylanica, Cyperus difformis, C. iria, Cyanodon dactylon, Eleocharia dulcis, Hydrilla verticilliata, Nymphaea stellata, Potamogeton sp., Salvania sp., Typha sp.
Uttar Pradesh
SECTION VIII PESTS OF RICE 29
SECTION VIII PESTS OF RICE

Rice is the staple food for more than one and a half of the world population and accounts for more than 42% of food production. Thus the increased and sustained production of rice is fundamental to food security in India. The production advance in rice in the recent years has enabled selfsufficiency despite increase in population. In India, rice is grown in 43 million hectares in four major ecosystems: irrigated (19m ha), rainfed lowlands (14 m ha), flood prone (3 m ha) and rainfed upland (6 m ha). No other country in the world has such diversity in rice ecosystem. One of the important constraints in achieving higher rice yields is losses caused by pests. The common pests of rice are insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, viruses, phytoplasma etc. Cultivation of high yielding dwarf rice cultivars since mid sixties, that necessitated the high input use including excess nitrogenous fertilizers and consequent microclimate increased the pest problems. The extent of losses due to these pests fluctuates widely depending upon the prevailing factors of abundance of these pests in a particular year/ season and the local agroclimatic conditions. Losses of about 30% average cumulative were reported. The Natural Resources Institute (NRI) London has developed a methodology for ranking different pests and diseases affecting agricultural crops (Geddes and Lles, 1991). NRI carried out a study of pre-harvest pests in South Asia and the relative importance of pests was assessed in 30 cropping systems zone. The NRI ranking of pests affecting rice is given below.
Pest Rice blast Yellow stem borer Bacterial leaf blight Brown plant hopper Root nematode Gall midge Green leaf hopper/ Rice tungro virus Leaf folder White backed plant hopper Rice hispa Sheath blight Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Source: Geddes and Lles (1991)
The knowledge of rice pests has been greatly expanded during the last few decades. A brief summary of the important pests, their hosts/ vectors, geographical distribution, yield losses, variability, natural enemies/ biocontrol agents is given in Tables 15, 16 and 17.
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Table 15: Important insect pests of rice in India Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Field Pests Brevennia rehi (Lindinger) Rice mealy bug Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae Chilo suppressalis Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, (Walker) Zea mays Striped rice stem borer Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal (CIE, 1979) Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal) (CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults Rhopus fullawayi Predators affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults: Anatrichus pygmaeus, Domomyza perspicax, Leucopis luteicornis (CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus optabilis, Telenomus dignus, Tetrastichus schoenobii, Trichogrammatoidea australicum, T. chilonis, T. dendrolimi, T. japonicum; Eggs, larvae: Chelonus munakatae, Larvae: Cotesia chilonis, C. flavipes, C. schoenobii, Eriborus sinicus, Stenobracon deesae, Sturmiopsis inferens, Temelucha biguttula; Larvae, pupae: Myosoma chinensis, Tetrastichus howardi, Tropobracon schoenobii Pupae: Trathala flavoorbitalis, Xanthopimpla punctata, X. stemmator Predator affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulate Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Beauveria bassiana, Nucleopolyhedrosis virus, Paecilomyces farinosus It may have serious effects during drought years and in sandy soils. Moderately high temperature is the key factor in stimulating an outbreak. Often found associated with Rice chlorotic streak virus. It is one of the most serious pests of rice in the Far East for many years. During the vegetative stage, larval feeding causes dead heart. The plants recover by growing new tillers. At the reproductive stage, feeding causes whitehead. The damage could reach 100%. Hosts (Major) Distribution in India Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Remarks
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guene) Rice leaf folder Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Hosts (Major)
Distribution in India
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Copidosoma, Copidosomopsis nacoleiae, Telenomus dignus Larvae: Apanteles angaleti, A. angustibasis, A. cypris, A. opacus, A. syleptae, Aphanogmus fijiensis, Cotesia flavipes, C. ruficrus, Barylypa apicala, Bracon gelechiae, B. hebetor, B. ricinicola, Cardiochiles philippinensis, Chaetexorista javana, Chelonus munakatae, Diatora lissonata, Elasmus brevicornis, E. claripennis, E. philippinensis, Goniozus indicus, G. triangulifer, G. triangulus, Leptobatopsis indica, Megaselia scalaris, Meteorus bacoorensis, Nemorilla floralis maculosa, Temelucha basimacula, T. biguttula, T. philippinensis, T. stangli, Tetrastichus schoenobii Larvae, pupae: Brachymeria excarinata, Eriborus argenteopilosus, E. sinicus, Ischnojoppa luteator, Trathala flavoorbitalis Pupae: Brachymeria lasus, B. tachardiae, Tetrastichus howardi, T. israelensis, Trichospilus pupivora, Xanthopimpla flavolineata Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus)
Remarks
Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal) (Rajamma and Das, 1969; Gargar and Katiyar, 1971; Khaire and Bhapkar, 1971; Yadava et al., 1972; Ramasubbaiah et al., 1980; Chaturvedi and Mathur, 1981; Kushwaha and Sharma, 1981; Garg and Tandon, 1982; APPPC, 1987; CAB International, 2005)
Outbreaks were reported in India, Bangladesh, China, Fiji, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam, (Pathak and Khan, 1994). In all the cases, yield losses were reported.
32
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Predators affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulata Eggs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Different stages: Chlaenius bioculatus, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Harmonia octomaculata (ladybird, maculate), Lycosa pseudoannulata, Solenopsis geminata (tropical fire ant)
Remarks
Dicladispa Oryza sativa armigera (Olivier) Rice hispa, Paddy hispa Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CIE, 1966; Acharya, 1967; Thakur et al., 1979; Pasalu and Tewari, 1989; CAB International, 2005)
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma Larvae: Bracon, B. hispae, Campyloneurus sp., Closterocerus cardigaster, Pediobius Pupae: Trichomalopsis apanteloctena, Predators affecting: Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata, Rhignochoris fuscipes, Rhynocoris fuscipes Pathogens affecting: Adults: Aspergillus flavus, Beauveria bassiana (CAB International, 2005) Infection of hispa eggs by B. bassiana also observed in field in India (Hazarika et al., 1998).
It has been a perpetual problem in Bangladesh and parts of India. In India, both rice crops, kharif and rabi, are subjected to sporadic outbreaks of D. armigera and may be severely attacked. Actual yield losses, have not yet been quantified. Annual yield loss estimates of 20% in Andhra Pradesh, 17-20% in West Bengal, India (Pasalu and Tewari, 1989) have been reported.
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/parasitoids affecting: Eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae, adults: Eutrombidium trigonum (grasshopper, mite, red) Eggs: Scelio hieroglyphi Predator: Mylabris pustulata (blister beetle, arhap) Pathogens affecting: Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana, Entomophaga grylli (CAB International, 2005).
Remarks
Hieroglyphus Oryza sativa, banian (Fabricius) Panicum miliaceum, Rice grasshopper Saccharum officinarum, Orthoptera: Sorghum bicolor, Acrididae Zea mays
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Bhatia, 1949; Diwakar 1972; Garg and Chaudhary, 1979; Chatterjee and Debgoswami, 1981; Pradhan, 1983; Ahmad and Gangwar, 1984; Bhowmik and Haldar, 1984; Shah and Garg, 1986; Nayak and Gandhi, 1990; Mohan et al., 1991. Widespread throughout India (Thomas et al., 1971; CAB International, 2005)
Outbreaks of H. banian in India have occurred on sugarcane in Gujarat (Vyas and Butani, 1985), on sorghum in Madhya Pradesh (Vyas et al., 1983) and on rice in West Bengal (Chatterjee and Debgoswami, 1981). In recent years this pest has generally been kept well under its economic injury level in India, hence no more recent loss estimates are available. It is involved in the mechanical transmission of Xanthomonas campestris pv. Oryzae, the causal agent of bacterial blight of rice.
Hydrellia philippina Ferino Rice whorl maggot Diptera: Ephydridae
Oryza sativa
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma, T. chilonis Larvae : Tetrastichus sp. Predators affecting: Adults: Lycosa pseudoannulata, Neoscona theisi , Oxyopes javanus Pathogen: Beauveria bassiana
In south India, yield losses ranging from 20-30% have been reported on the first crop from April to September. However, infestation was less in the second crop (Thomas et al., 1971).
34
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Entomophthora grylli (CAB International, 2005).The nematodes, Gordius sp. and Mermis nigrescens, also parasitize H. banian (Nayar et al., 1976).
Remarks
Leptocorisa acuta Oryza sativa Thunberg Rice seed bug Hemiptera:Coreidae
Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005)
Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Eggs: Ooencyrtus papilionis Predator affecting: Eggs: Homorocoryphus longipennis Nymphs, adults: Micraspis discolor, Neoscona theisi Pathogen affecting: Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB International, 2005). An unnamed tachinid parasitoid parasitizes L. acuta in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India (Ansari and Jacob, 1997). Field studies indicated that it could provide a high level of control and thus could be exploited as a potential biological control agent against L. acuta in other areas. In laboratory pathogenicity tests, the entomophilic nematodes Heterorhabditis indicus, Steinernema glaseri and S. feltiae were observed infecting L. lepidophora larvae (Poinar et al., 1992). Bacillus popilliae may cause 70.8% mortality in Larvae.
Rice attacked by these bugs is reported to have unpleasant odour even after cooking. Yield losses upto 40% have been recorded. It is a mechanical vector of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, which causes bacterial leaf blight in India. Also involved in the transmission of sheath rot disease (Lakshmanan et al., 1992).
Leucopholis lepidophora Blanchard White grub Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Arachis hypogaea, Areca catechu, Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum, Zea mays
Karnataka, Maharashtra (Veeresh et al., 1982; Adsule and Patil, 1990, 1994)
Surveys in Maharashtra, India (198689) indicated that L. lepidophora caused damage to 25-100% of sugarcane, rice, maize, groundnuts and vegetables (Adsule and Patil, 1990).
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel Rice water weevil Coleoptera: Curculionidae Melanitis leda ismene Cramer Rice butterfly Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Predator affecting: Larvae: Pantala flavescens Pathogens affecting: Adults: Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus), Metarhizium anisopliae (green muscardine fungus)
Remarks
Oryza sativa
Present, introduced (CAB International, 2005)
Causes serious rice yield losses throughout its geographic range. It has spread throughout the Japan, with yield losses of 41 to 60%. From 1988 to 1992, it has occupied more than 50% of the total rice acreage in Korea Republic and has been predicted to spread throughout all of the ricegrowing areas. Generally does not cause appreciable damage. However, occasional high populations have been reported in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (Katiyar et al., 1976); Manipur, India (Singh and Singh, 1979).
Oryza sativa
Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Katiyar et al., 1976; Rai, 1978; Singh and Singh, 1979; Singh, 1983; APPPC, 1987; Jana and Ghosh, 1994; Padmanaban et al., 1990; CAB International, 2005) Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Pupae: Trichospilus diatraeae Predators affecting: Larvae : Amyotea malabarica, Andrallus spinidens, Eocanthecona furcellata Pathogen affecting: Larvae, pupae: Beauveria velata, Fusarium oxysporum, Serratia marcescens (Srivastava and Nayak, 1978; CAB International, 2005).
Mythimna separata Walker
Wide host range
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae, pupae: Barichneumon solitarius, Brachymeria lasus, Carcelia prima, Charops bicolor, Cuphocera iavana, Dolicholon
It causes the greatest damage to the rice panicles. In cases of severe infestation, damage may be upto 60% or more (Dale, 1994). However, its
36
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Rice armyworm Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect parasoxum, Drino inconspicua, Exorista fallax, E. xanthaspis, Metopius rufus, Palexorista solennis, Pseudogonia rufifrons, Pseudoperichaeta anomala, Theocarcelia oculata, Turanogonia chinensis Larvae: Compsilura, Cotesia parbhanii, C. ruficrus, Ovomermis albicans, Steinernema glaseri Eggs: Tetrastichus sp. Predators affecting: Larvae: Calosoma indicum,Carabidae (ground beetles), Chlaenius bioculatus, Eocanthecona furcellata Pathogens affecting: Larvae: Granulosis virus, Nucleopolyhedrosis virus (CAB International, 2005). Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus, Oligosita aesopi, O. naias Nymphs, adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Halictophagus bipunctatus, Pipunculus mutillatus, Tomosvaryella oryzaetora, T. subvirescens Predators affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults: Amphiareus constrictus, Coccinella transversalis, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Harmonia octomaculata, Tytthus parviceps
Remarks
Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CIE, 1983; Thakur, 1984; Shukla et al., 1986; Greathead and Greathead, 1992; Patel and Patel, 1993)
incidence has declined to some extent during the past 30-40 years because of the expansion of irrigated rice cultivation.
Nephotettix nigropictus (Stl) Rice green leafhopper Hemiptera: Cicadellidae
Cyperus spp., Oryza sativa, Panicum spp., Poa spp.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West
A vector for Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV). Maintains epidemiological cycle between rice seasons by transmitting RTBV and RTSV particles to alternative weed hosts, which grow throughout the year.
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Nymphs, adults: Argiope catenulate, Casnoidea indica, Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Stenonabis tagalicus Pathogens affecting: Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae (Manjunath et al.,1978; Misra ,1980; Gupta and Pawar, 1989; CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs:Anagrus flaveolus, Oligosita sp., Paracentrobia andoi Nymphs: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Tomosvaryella oryzaetora, T. subvirescens, Nymphs, adults: Halictophagus bipunctatus Predators affecting: Eggs : Microvelia douglasi, Tetragnatha spp., beetles, dragonflies and spiders. Two Gonatocerus sp. and a species of Paracentrobia Nymphs, adults : Argiope catenulata Eggs, nymphs, adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Pathogens affecting: Nymphs, Adults: Beauveria bassiana (CAB Abstracts 1973-98; Gupta and Pawar, 1989; Das et al., 1990).
Remarks
Bengal (Pawar and Bhalla, 1974; Dhawan and Sajjan, 1977; Rao, 1980; Ghose et al., 1987; Balasubramanian et al., 1988; CAB International, 2005)
Nephotettix Oryza sativa virescens (Distant) Green rice leaf hopper Hemiptera: Cicadellidae
Widespread in India (CIE 1971; CAB International, 2005)
It is amongst the most widespread and abundant pest of irrigated rice. About 17-23 kg/ ha of grain yield was lost in five states of southern India during 1990-1991 and an additional 15 to 24 kg/ha to tungro (Ramasamy et al., 1996). It transmits Rice tungro virus (RTV). Annual economic losses due to tungro throughout Asia are US$ 1500 million (Herdt, 1988). Also transmits Rice yellow dwarf phytoplasma, Rice bunchy stunt virus, Rice gall virus and Rice transitory yellowing virus (CAB International, 2005).
38
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) Green shield bug, Green stink bug Hemiptera: Pentatomidae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Psix striaticeps, Ooencyrtus papilionis Predators: Nabis capsiformis, Oecophylla smaragdina, Sycanus collaris Pathogens: Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana A considerable diversity of natural enemies attack N. viridula in various stages of its development. No product has been developed for field use (CAB International, 2005).
Remarks
Wide host range
Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Datta and Chakravarty, 1977; Singh et al., 1977; Saha and Saharia, 1983; Dhamdhere et al., 1984; Bhalani and Bharodia, 1988; CAB International, 2005) Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Blemishes reduce quality and marketability of the crop. It is known to carry spores of fungal diseases from plant to plant, and can also transfer plant pathogens mechanically during feeding. It transmits spores of fungal species of Nematospora, which causes internal rots.
Nilaparvata lugens Stl Brown planthopper (BPH) Hemiptera: Fulgoroidea
Oryza spp., O. sativa, Zizania
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus, A. optabilis, A. perforator, Nymphs, Adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Elenchus japonicus, Haplogonatopus apicalis, H. orientalis, Pipunculus mutillatus, Tomosvaryella oryzaetora Predators affecting: Eggs, nymphs, adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Tytthus parviceps
The most serious insect pest of rice in Asia. It was a minor rice pest until the mid-1960s (Pathak and Dhaliwal, 1981). However, it assumed the status of the most destructive pest in the 1970s (Heinrichs and Mochida, 1984), after the introduction of Taichung Native 1 in 1964 and IR8 in 1968.The yield loss in India was 1.1-32.5% (Jayaraj et al., 1974). It assumed an epidemic form in India
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Nymphs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Nymphs, adults: Argiope catenulata Lycosa pseudoannulata, Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Tetragnatha mandibulata, T. sutherlandi Pathogens affecting: Nymphs, adults: Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae (CAB International, 2005). Gautam (1998) also listed Parasites Echthrodelphax sp. (attacking all stages), Haplogonatopus sp. (attacking all stages), Pseudogonatopus sp. (attacking nymph, adult) Predators Neoscona nautical (attacking nymph)
Remarks
Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Banerjee, 1971; Khaire and Bhapkar, 1971; Das et al., 1972; Abraham, 1975; Bhalla and Pawar, 1975; ChannaBasavanna et al., 1976; Pawar and Banerjee, 1976; Pawar and Bhalla, 1977; Chatterjee, 1978; Natarajan, 1978; Nath and Sen, 1978; Dyck and Thomas, 1979; Kalode and Krishna, 1979; Natarajan et al., 1988; Rizvi and Singh, 1983; Thakur et al., 1979; CAB International, 2005) Nymphula depunctalis Guenee Rice case worm Lepidoptera: Oryza sativa Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan,
in 1973 and caused extensive damage in Kerala. Following an outbreak in 1973-74, heavy losses in yields occurred, as a result of grassy stunt (reported for the first time in India). It is a vector for Rice ragged stunt virus and Grassy shoot virus (Rivera et al., 1966).Three biotypes are known (Pasalu and Katti, 2004)
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum Predators affecting: Adults: Argiope catenulata (CAB International, 2005). The parasitic wasps Pediobius viggianii and P. ni are recorded as larval parasites in northern India
In Madhya Pradesh, India, P. stagnalis damaged 38 to 94% of leaves in rice fields and the combined infestation of this pest with the rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) caused an overall yield
40
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Crambidae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect (Khan, 1996).
Remarks
Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Viraktamath et al., 1975; CAB International, 2005) Oryza sativa Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005)
loss of 80% (Patel and Khatri, 2001).
Orseolia oryzae (Wood-Mason) Mani Rice gall fly Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs, larvae: Platygaster oryzae Larvae : Eurytoma setitibia, Propicroscytus mirificus, Pupae: Neanastatus cinctiventris, N. oryzae Predators affecting: Larvae: Carabidae (ground beetles), Nabis capsiformis Larvae, pupae: Casnoidea indica
A major pest in Asia. Average crop losses of 50-100% over wide areas have been reported. Epidemics of this pest occurred in cycles of 3-5 years causing 100% damage of rice plants. Pathak and Dhaliwal (1981) also reported that O. oryzae was spreading in the Indian subcontinent and was first recorded in Uttar Pradesh in 1971. In 1989, a serious outbreak occurred in Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Rao, 1989). So far, six biotypes of gall midge have been reported throughout India (Pasalu and Katti, 2004). In the rice field, 2-4 adults per m can reduce output by 6.8-17.8%. In India, O. chinensis has been listed as among the five most important rice pests in the Sikkim Hills (Thakur, 1984).
Oxya chinensis (Thunberg) Rice grasshopper Orthoptera:
Gossypium spp., Oryza sativa, Panicum miliaceum, Phragmites
Karnataka, Sikkim (Thonkadarya and Devaiah, 1975; Thakur, 1984)
Predator affecting: Nymphs, adults: Pantala flavescens
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Acrididae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect
Remarks
australis, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., Zea mays Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Jandu, 1943; Usman, 1954; Fawar, 1956; Sengupta, 1959; Birat, 1963; Sen and Chakravarti, 1970; Christudas et al., 1971; Jotwani, 1975; Maninder and Varma, 1982; APPPC, 1987; Ghose et al., 1987) Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae: Apanteles javanensis, Brachymeria lasus, Cotesia baoris, Halidaya luteicornis, Halydaia luteicornis, Trichomalopsis apanteloctena, Xanthopimpla punctata Larvae, pupae: Brachymeria, B. excarinata, Charops bicolor, Ischnojoppa luteator Eggs: Trichogramma chilonis, Trichogrammatoidea bactrae Predators affecting: Eggs, larvae, pupae: Amyotea malabarica, Paederus fuscipes A very large insect and a single larva can cause high amount of defoliation. Local outbreaks, however, are rare. Its wide host range gives it a good chance of becoming established in new areas.
Pelopidas mathias Hordeum vulgare, (Fabricius) Oryza sativa, Saccharum Rice skipper officinarum, Sorghum bicolor, Lepidoptera: Triticum aestivum, Hesperiidae Zea mays
Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale (Sasaki,) Rice root aphid
Gossypium spp., Hordeum vulgare, Oryza sativa, Prunus, Saccharum
Parasite/ parasitoid affecting: Nymphs, adults: Aphelinus (aphelinid) Pathogens affecting: Nymphs, adults: Lecanicillium lecanii
It is an economic pest of upland rice, particularly in Japan, but is not a pest of irrigated rice anywhere in the world. Singh (1977) presented evidence of R. rufiabdominalis being
42
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Hemiptera: Aphididae
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Meagre information is available concerning natural enemies of this aphid, largely due to its subterranean habitat (CAB International, 2005). Ding (1985) found 57.4-100% parasitism by a braconid parasite, Aphidius sp., in a study of upland rice in China. Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae, pupae: Amauromorpha accepta accepta, A. accepta schoenobii, Eriborus sinicus, Ischnojoppa luteator, Rhaconotus schoenobivorus, Temelucha philippinensis, T. stangli, Tetrastichus howardi, Xanthopimpla stemmator Larvae: Chelonus munakatae, Cotesia chilonis, C. flavipes, Elasmus albopictus, Exoryza schoenobii, Myosoma chinensis, Stenobracon nicevillei, Tropobracon schoenobii Eggs: Telenomus dignoides, T. dignus, T. rowani, Tetrastichus schoenobii, Trichogramma chilonis, T. exiguum, T. japonicum Predators affecting: Eggs: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Harmonia octomaculata, Homorocoryphus longipennis Adults: Argiope catenulate, Lycosa pseudoannulata, Oxyopes javanus, O. pandae Pathogens affecting: Larvae, pupae: Beauveria bassiana
Remarks
officinarum, Solanum melongena, Triticum spp.
Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005)
a vector of Maize mosaic virus in India.
Scirpophaga incertulas Walker Yellow rice stemborer Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Oryza sativa
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005)
It is one of the most destructive pests of rice in India. The larval feeding at vegetative stage causes the death of a central leaf whorl, the deadheart and at the reproductive stage may cause death of the emerging panicle the whitehead. S. incertulas has a high potential to cause significant yield losses (Islam, 1990; Islam and Karim, 1999). The reported yield losses in different areas of India vary from 3 to 95%.
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Anagrus flaveolus, A. frequens, A. optabilis, A. perforator, Oligosita naias (Prakasarao, 1969) Nymphs, adults: Ecthrodelphax fairchildii, Elenchus japonicus,Haplogonatopus apicalis, H. orientalis Predators affecting: Eggs, nymphs: Carabidae (ground beetles) Nymphs, Adults: Argiope catenulate, Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Paederus fuscipes Eggs, nymphs, adults: Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Different Stages: Casnoidea indica, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Clubiona abbottii, C. drassodes, Marpissa mandali, Micraspis discolor, Tytthus chinensis Pathogens: Beauveria bassiana (CAB International, 2005). Gautam (1998) has also listed parasites Echthrodelphax sp. (all stages) Haplogonatopus sp. (all stages) Pseudogonatopus sp. (nymph, adult)
Remarks
Sogatella furcifera Oryza sativa (Horvth) White-backed rice planthopper Hemiptera: Delphacidae
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Fletcher, 1916, 1917; Berg, 1960; Atwal et al., 1967; Chatterjee, 1971; Pawar and Bhalla, 1974; Chhabra et al., 1976; Kushwaha and Singh, 1986; Saha, 1986; Gubbaiah et al., 1987; Panda and Shi, 1988; Chakraborty et al., 1990; Krishnaiah et al., 1996; Ambikadevi et al., 1998; CAB International, 2005) Andman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal
A major pest of rice in tropics and subtropics in Asia. Under favourable conditions, it produces several generations causing hopperburn. A serious outbreak was reported in Pakistan in 1978, in the northwest of West Malaysia in May 1979, and in India in 1982 (Khan and Kushwaha, 1991). In May-June 1985, it severely damaged rice for the first time in Assam, India, where heavily infested fields were hopperburned.
Spodoptera mauritia
Gossypium spp., Oryza sativa,
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Telenomus remus, Tetrastichus
Its sudden outbreaks can result in serious damage, sometimes with the
44
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family Boisduval
Hosts (Major)
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ Parasitoids, Predators, Pathogens) Affecting Different Stages of Insect schoenobii, Trichogramma chilonis Larvae: Chelonus insularis, Cotesia flavipes, C. marginiventris, C. ruficrus, Cuphocera iavana, Lespesia archippivora, Peribaea orbata, Pseudogonia rufifrons Predator Andrallus spinidens Pathogen Nucleopolyhedrosis virus
Remarks
Saccharum officinarum, Zea Paddy armyworm, mays and also Paddy swarming number of hosts caterpillar belonging to family Lepidoptera: Brassicaceae and Noctuidae Poaceae
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB Abstracts, 1973-1998; CAB International, 2005)
loss of the entire paddy crop. Few major outbreaks have been recorded in equatorial South-East Asia (Rothschild, 1969). According to Dale (1994), this insect is a sporadic pest causing upto 20% loss in rice yield.
Storage Pests Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) Rice meal moth, Rice moth Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Manihot esculenta, Myristica fragrans, Oryza sativa, Panicum miliaceum Pennisetum glaucum , Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays, stored products Andman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujrat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogrammatoidea australicum, T. chilonis Larvae: Bracon brevicornis, B. hebetor Predators affecting: Eggs, larvae: Acaropsellina docta, Blattisocius keegani, B. tarsalis Larvae: Amphibolus venator, Sycanus affinis (CAB International, 2005). A technique of using gelatin capsules containing eggs of C. cephalonica parasitized by T. chilonis for the release of adult trichogrammatids has been developed in India (Maninder et al., 1998). The larval feeding causes the formation of webs in the material. The webbing formed by the larvae is noticeably more dense and tough. In cases of heavy infestation the food material becomes tightly matted together with webbing, cocoons, cast skins and frass. Such contamination of food may be of greater economic importance than larval feeding. It is used as a substitute host for breeding parasitoids.
Hosts (Major)
Remarks
Bengal (CAB International, 2005) Avena sativa, Widespread (Sinha Hordeum vulgare, and Sinha, 1990; CAB Oryza sativa, International, 2005) Panicum spp., Lesser grain borer Pennisetum spp., Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. Coleoptera: aestivum, T. Bostrichidae turgidum, Zea mays, stored products Rhizopertha dominica (Fabricius) Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) Rice weevil Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae Manihot esculenta, Oryza sativa, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, T. spelta, Zea mays, stored products Present in India, found in all warm and tropical parts of the world, but it may also be found in temperate climates (CAB International, 2005) Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Pyemotes tritici Larvae: Anisopteromalus calandrae Predators affecting: Eggs: Acaropsellina docta, Tenebroides mauritanicus Eggs, larvae, nymphs pupae, adults: Xylocoris flavipes R. dominica is very susceptible to B. thuringiensis var. tenebrionis with over 75% mortality (CAB International, 2005). Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Larvae, pupae: Anisopteromalus calandrae Predator affecting: Larvae, pupae: Acaropsellina docta The larvae and adults consume the seed and cause both quantitative and qualitative losses.
One of the most destructive primary pests of stored cereals. It can attack cereal plants in the fields. Feeding results both in quantitative and qualitative losses. The maximum weight loss caused to single kernels of rice by individual larvae was 57%. Weight losses up to 30-40% may occur in storage. It attacks grain in the field as well as in storage, causing an estimated overall yield loss of upto 30% (Singh and Benazet, 1975). Stored rice (unhusked) revealed infestation level
Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) Angoumois grain
Avena sativa, Hordeum vulgare, Oryza spp., O. sativa, Pennisetum glaucum, Secale
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,
Parasites/ parasitoids affecting: Eggs: Trichogramma spp., T. evanescens, T. maidis, T. minutum, T. pretiosum, T. semblidis, T. telengai
46
Insect Scientific Name Common Name Order: Family moth, Rice grain moth Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae
Hosts (Major)
Remarks
cereale, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, T. spelta, Zea mays, Zizania palustris
Manipur, Orissa, Larvae: Bracon hebetor Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Eggs, larvae, nymphs, pupae, adults: Uttar Pradesh Pyemotes tritici (CAB International, 2005). (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Girish et al., 1974; Bhardwaj et al., 1977; Champ and Dyte, 1977; Upadhyay et al., 1979; Borah and Mohon, 1982; Prakash and Kauraw, 1982; Gupta, 1983; Ilyasa et al., 1983; Pande and Singh, 1983; Pajni and Mehta, 1986; PadwalDesai et al., 1987; Dhaliwal et al., 1989; Ramashrit and Mishra, 1989; Sinha and Sinha, 1992)
upto 88%. The eggs of S. cerealella have been used extensively to rear the predatory chrysopid for biologica1 control of other pests.
Table 16: Important nematode pests of rice in India Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Aphelenchoides besseyii Christie White tip nematode of rice Aphelenchoididae Hosts (Major) Distribution Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators, pathogens) Affecting the Nematode Remarks
Fragaria ananassa, Oryza sp., O. glaberrima, O. sativa
Andhra Pradesh, Arachnula impatiens, Vampyrella vorax Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Prasad et. al., 1987; CAB International, 2005) Assam, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Chatterjee 1984; Ray et al., 1987; Roy, 1987; Patil, 1998; CAB International, 2005) Not reported
Economically very important and seedtransmitted. More than 20 races known world over. Severe symptoms reported in field but accurate yield losses lacking. Computed losses of 0.2-10% reported. It has been reported in 12.8% of rice seed lots with infection levels ranging from 2-82% within lots. However, losses of upto 50% have been reported in upland rice in Brazil (CAB International, 2005).
Ditylenchus angustus Filipjev Rice stem nematode ufra disease Anguinidae
Oryza (generic level), O. sativa
In India, yield losses in rice have been estimated to range from 10 to 15% in West Bengal and 30% in Assam, 50% in Uttar Pradesh (Rao et al., 1986; Prasad et al., 1987). It occurs in 2080% of rice in West Bengal (Chakrabarti et al., 1985). Not a seed borne disease. Its distribution is becoming more restricted (Prot, 1993).
Heterodera oryzae Oryza sativa Luc & Berdon Brizuela,
Assam, Kerala, Orissa Pathogens The incidence of cyst nematode results (Rao and Jayaprakash, Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium in a general decline in plant growth and 1977) blotch) vigour. The cysts remain in the field
48
Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family Rice cyst nematode Heteroderidae
Hosts (Major)
Distribution
Natural Enemies (Parasites/ parasitoids/ predators, pathogens) Affecting the Nematode
Remarks
and liberate the larvae in the soil for multiplication. Eggs may hatch from egg masses after 9 months and form cysts after 2 years. Once hatched, juveniles can only survive in the soil for about 3 weeks, slightly longer in anaerobic conditions. The economic impact of H. oryzae has not been assessed. Oryza sativa Goa, Haryana, Kerala, Not reported Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal (Koshy et al., 1987; Prasad et al., 1987; CAB International, 2005) Yield losses are not well documented as the nematode generally occurs in association with other species. The nematode caused upto 56% reduction in the growth of rice plants grown in pots. Yield losses are not documented as it occurs in association with other species.
Heterodera oryzicola Rao & Jayaprakash Rice cyst Heteroderidae
Hirschmanniella Oryza sativa oryzae (van Breda de Haan) Luc & Goodey Rice root nematode Pratylenchidae
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West
Predators: Mononchoides fortidens, Hirschmanniella spp. infest 58% of the Mononchoides longicaudatus (Greathead worlds rice fields, causing 25% yield and Greathead, 1992) losses. However, there are discrepancies in yield loss estimates as it is not always solely attributable to the nematodes and also influenced by soil fertility, age of the plant, number of crops and by flooding, and climatic conditions. The root harbour large number of nematodes. The rice plants are stunted with fewer tillers and poor grain filling
Nematode Scientific Name Common name Family
Hosts (Major)
Distribution
Remarks
Bengal (Mathur and Prasad, 1971; CAB International, 2005) Hoplolaimus indicus Sher Lance nematode Hoplolaimidae Oryza sativa Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Pathogen Gujrat, Haryana, Catenaria anguillula Himachal Pradesh, (Greathead and Greathead, 1992) Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Birat, 1965; Banerji and Banerji, 1966; Gupta and Gupta, 1967; Das et al., 1970; Khan and Chawla, 1975; Hasan et al., 1976; Krishnappa et al., 1980; Phukan and Sanwal, 1980; Zoological Survey of India, 1983; Anonymous, 1984; Darekar et al., 1992; Sharma and Ali, 1993;
may cause 10-36% yield loss. It survives in moist as well as dry soil.
Reduction in rice yield is upto 25% and decrease in protein content of grain by 2.9% reported. The nematode survives in soil and root debris. The phytosanitary risk is low, with the most likely mode of spread being through infected plant roots/ soil.
50
Hosts (Major)
Distribution
Remarks
Sundararaj and Mehta, 1993; Hazarika, 1994; Nath et al., 1995) Meloidogyne graminicola Golden & Birchfield Rice root knot nematode Meloidogynidae Oryza sativa Assam, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005) Pathogen Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium blotch). In upland rice, there is an estimated reduction of 2.6% in grain yield for every 1000 nematodes present around young seedlings. The losses are highly significant in case of infection of young crop. Upto 16 % loss has been reported. With every increase of a thousand larvae of the nematode in the inoculum, the grain yield was reduced by 2.6%. Soil temperature of 23.5oC and below are favourable to the formation of root knots and to the production of egg masses. Nematode activity is more pronounced in soils with acidic pH. Most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. It is widely endemic in subtropical and tropical regions.
Meloidogyne Abelmoschus incognita esculentus, (Kofoid & White) Capsicum annuum, Carica Root-knot papaya, Coffea, C. nematode arabica, Hibiscus cannabinus, Meloidogynidae Lactuca sativa, Lycopersicon esculentum, Mangifera indica,
Andman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Pathogens Aspergillus niger (collar rot), Aureobasidium pullulans (blue stain: wood), Cochliobolus lunatus (head mould of grasses, rice and sorghum), Corticium rolfsii, Fusarium oxysporum,F.oxysporum f.sp. ciceris (Fusarium wilt of chickpea), Nectria haematococca (dry rot of potato), Myrothecium verrucaria (myrothecium blotch), Paecilomyces lilacinus (biocontrol: nematodes), Pasteuria penetrans,
Hosts (Major)
Distribution
Remarks
Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus spp. , P. vulgaris, and number of hosts belonging to families Cucurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae
Manipur, Meghalaya, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Serratia Orissa, Rajasthan, marcescens, Trichoderma viride, Verticillium Sikkim, Tripura, Tamil chlamydosporium Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (Mathur et al., 1970; Raveendran and Nadakal, 1975; Sen and Das Gupta, 1976; Haryana Agricultural University, 1980; Tiwari and Dave, 1985; Prasad, 1986; Mathur and Khera, 1991; Salam, 1991; Bhat and Kaul, 1994) Andhra Pradesh, Not reported Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005) A migratory endoparasite of the root cortex. All stages are found in the outer parenchyma cells and never in the vascular tissues. Crop losses upto 48.5 % in grain yield have been reported. These nematodes survive in soil and root debris. Control measures may result in 13-55% increase in yield.
Pratylenchus indicus Das Root lesion nematode Pratylenchidae
Arachis hypogaea, Capsicum annuum, Feijoa sellowiana, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Psidium guajava, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays and number of hosts belonging to Solanaceae.
52
Table 17: Important diseases of rice in India Pathogen Common Name Viruses Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) Tungro Nephotettix virescens (synonym N. impicticeps); N. cincticeps, N. nigropictus, N. malayanus and Recilia dorsalis Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Mishra, 1977; Anjaneyulu, 1986; CAB International, 2005) Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colona, E. crus-galli, E. glabescens, Eleusine indica, Leersia hexandra, Leptochloa chinensis, Oryza sativa, Panicum repens Tungro reached an epidemic level in West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in 1969, and in Kerala in 1973-1974 and in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal 90,000 ha of land was affected (Anjaneyulu et al., 1994). In 1984-1985, a tungro outbreak in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh led to an estimated yield loss of 20,000 t in Tamil Nadu, and 49,000 ha in Andhra Pradesh. In 1998, an outbreak of tungro-like yellow stunt syndrome occurred in Punjab where yield losses were estimated at 30-100% (Azzam et al., 1999). Four biological variants of RTBV (L, G1, G2 and Ic) have been described based on their characteristic symptoms in rice cultivars FK 135 and TN1 (Cabauatan et al., 1995). RTBV isolates from South Asia (India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh) differ in sequence from those from South-East Asia (Fan et al., 1996; Druka and Hull, 1998). There is microvariation in the sequences of isolates from the Philippines and other countries (Azzam et al., 2000a). Transmission Geographical Distribution Host Range Remarks
Pathogen Common Name Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) Tungro
Transmission Nephotettix virescens (synonym N. impicticeps), N. cincticeps, N. nigropictus, N. malayanus and Recilia dorsalis
Geographical Distribution Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Mishra, 1977; Anjaneyulu, 1986)
Host Range Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa colona, E. crus-galli, E. glabescens, Leersia hexandra, Leptochloa chinensis, Oryza sativa, Panicum repens
Remarks In south and southeast Asia, tungro, a composite disease caused by RTSV and RTBV, is a major threat to stable rice production in irrigated areas (Hibino, 1989a). Several serological variants of RTSV have been reported (Druka et al., 1996; Druka & Hull, 1998). The electrophoretic mobility of RTSV CP3 of Indian isolate differed from that of Southeast Asian isolates (Druka et al., 1996). Molecular techniques reveal much microvariation in the sequences encoding CP1 and CP2 (Azzam et al., 2000b). RGSV incidence was high during 197374 and in 1981 in Kerala; in 1972 and 1984 in Tamil Nadu. Since 1984, the incidence has been generally low in Asia. In Kerala, 15,000 ha were affected by RGSV (Gopalakrishnan et al., 1973; Anjaneyulu, 1974; Kulshrestha et al., 1974; Santhakumari et al., 1982) and yield losses due to the virus and plant hoppers were estimated to be $20 million (Dyck and Thomas, 1979). Different strains of RGSV viz., GSV1 and GSV2 in the Philippines, wilted stunt virus (GSW), grassy stunt B (GSB), grassy stunt Y (GSY) isolates in Taiwan, GSV 2-like strains in India, Indonesia and Thailand are reported
Rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV) Grassy stunt
Nilaparvata lugens, N. bakeri and N. muiri
Kerala, Tamil Nadu (Ghosh and Venkataraman, 1994; CAB International, 2005)
Oryza glaberrima, O. rufipogon, O. sativa
54
Pathogen Common Name
Transmission
Geographical Distribution
Host Range
Remarks (Hibino, 1989b). Serologically, a Japanese isolate was indistinguishable from strains 1 and 2 (Hibino et al., 1985) and closely related to severe strains from India (Mariappan et al., 1984) and Thailand (Chettanachit et al., 1985), and to GSB and GSW isolates from Taiwan (Hibino, 1986). Different variants of RGSV were observed in the Philippines. Their relationship with existing strains and the Taiwan isolates has not been determined (Miranda et al., 1991).
Rice ragged stunt virus (RRSV) Ragged stunt
Nilaparvata lugens
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Oryza latifolia, O. nivara, O. sativa West Bengal (Heinrichs, 1978; Ghosh et al., 1979; Mishra, 1979; Narayanasamy and Baskaran, 1980; CAB International, 2005)
RRSV is sporadically a very serious problem of rice in Thailand, Malaysia, the Philippines, India and Indonesia where yields can be reduced by 50100% (CAB International, 2005). No strains reported.
Phytoplasma Rice yellow dwarf Nephotettix phytoplasma cincticeps, N. nigropictus, N. Yellow dwarf virescens, N. malayanus and N. parvus Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Orissa, Tamil Nadu (Arjunan et al., 1985; Singh, 1987; Muniyappa et al., 1988; Pun and Oryza sativa In Karnataka, rice yellow dwarf was more severe in the ratoon than the main crop (Muniyappa et al., 1988). Reddy and Jeyarajan (1990) screened 36 cultivars for resistance and suggested the presence of different strains of the pathogen in Tamil Nadu.
Transmission
Geographical Distribution Das, 1992; CAB International, 2005)
Host Range
Remarks
Bacteria Acidovorax avenae subsp. avenae (Manns) Willems Bacterial brown stripe Seed Bihar, Delhi, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (CAB International, 2005) Oryza sativa, Saccharum officinarum, Bacterial brown stripe is frequently Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays detected in rice-growing countries (Shakya et al., 1985), but the disease is considered to have low epidemic potential (Cottyn et al., 1994). Losses are related to the inhibition of seed germination and to seedling damage in nursery boxes adapted to mechanized transplanters (Goto et al., 1988). In Kharif 1999, bacterial leaf blight (BLB) appeared in epidemic form in districts of Punjab where rice cv. Pusa44 was predominant and suffered about 30% yield loss (http:// www.tifac.org.in/itsap/disease.htm). The dominant strains in Madhya Pradesh belong to the pathotype 1 group (Sahu and Sahu, 1988). Pathogenic variability was noted among all the 24 isolates tested at CRRI, Cuttack (Tembhurnikar, 1989). At CRRI, Cuttack, using differential hosts, BLB isolates were grouped into six pathotypes. Pathotyping of 241 isolates collected from four different states in eastern India revealed the
Seed Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Ishiyama) Swings et al. Bacterial leaf blight
Andaman and Nicobar Leptochloa chinensis, Oryza sativa Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West
56
Transmission
Geographical Distribution Bengal (Bradbury, 1986; Ghose et al., 1987; Gupta and Choudhury, 1988; Tikoo et al., 1987; Reddy and Reddy, 1987; CAB International, 2005)
Host Range
Remarks existence of 20 different pathotypes. Also, pathogen diversity was clearly partitioned according to the site of collection using DNA markers. A total of 15 lineages were detected. The populations examined from Orissa and Raipur were much diverse as they consisted of 8 and 7 out of 15 lineages, respectively, as compared to those from Uttar Pradesh. Collections from a given site tended to consist of related haplotypes (http://crri.nic.in/ Pathology.htm).Natural enemy reported is Pseudomonas fluorescens (CAB International, 2005).
Seed Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Fang et al.) Swings et al. Bacterial leaf streak
Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (CAB International, 2005)
Oryza sativa
Bacterial leaf streak is much less important than BLB, generally occurring in some areas during very wet seasons and where high rates of nitrogen fertilizer are used. High grain losses due to the disease are therefore rare, because plants have time to recover after a disease outbreak. Losses of up to 30% have been reported in India, but losses are generally lower (Ou, 1985).
Fungi Seed Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands, Andhra The disease causes blight of seedlings grown from heavily infected seeds. The
Pathogen Common Name Kurib.) Drechsler ex Dastur Brown leaf spot
Transmission
Geographical Distribution Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Saini, 1985; Reddy and Reddy, 1987; Gupta and Choudhury, 1988; Gupta et al., 1992; Naim Uddin and Rama Chakraverty, 1994)
Host Range
Remarks disease reduced the number of tillers and inhibited root and shoot elongation and severe infection reduced both yield (20-40%) and quality (Vidyasekaran and Ramadoss, 1973). Rice isolates of C. miyabeanus obtained from different parts of Brazil varied in growth on culture media, incubation temperature, fungicide sensitivity and sectoring (Artigiani and Bedendo, 1996). Non-sporulating isolates grew better than the sporulating isolates in almost all media containing different sources of carbon, nitrogen and amino acids (Diaz and Bedendo, 1999). Natural enemies reported are Arachnula impatiens, Bacillus megaterium, B. subtilis, Vampyrella vorax, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (CAB International, 2005).
Seed Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) S. Ito Bakanae disease
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Gossypium, Leucaena leucocephala, Lycopersicon esculentum, Musa, Oryza sativa, Pinus, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor, Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays
Pavgi and Singh (1964) stated that losses of 15% occurred in eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh, India. Nisikado and Matsumoto (1933) reported that among 66 strains of G. fujikuroi obtained from rice and five strains of G. moniliformis var. majus, there were marked differences in pathogenicity as indicated by the degree of overgrowth. Four
58
Transmission
Geographical Distribution Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Pavgi and Singh, 1964; Singh and Srivastava, 1989; CAB International, 2005)
Host Range
Remarks
antagonistic bacteria, designated as B916, 91-2, A-2 and A-3, used in seed soaking gave good control of bakanae and significantly increased yield (Lu et al., 1999).
Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr Blast
Seed
Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy, 1987)
Blast is one of the most destructive diseases of rice and yield loss can be as high as 50% when the disease occurs in epidemic proportions. Many physiological races were reported from each country, Japan registered 34 (Matsumoto et al., 1969), Taiwan 27 (Chien, 1967), USA 16 (Latterell et al., 1960; Atkins, 1962), India 31 (Padmanabhan, 1965), the Philippines 250 (Bandong and Ou, 1966; IRRI, 1967, 1975) and Korea 18 (Lee and Cho, 1990), each country using different cultivars for race identification. Veeraraghavan and Dath (1976) found that only the race IC-17 was prevalent in India. This was the predominant race among the 31 reported by Padmanabhan et al. (1970). Recent molecular genetic studies indicate that Pyricularia grisea, the anamorph of Magnaporthe grisea exists as a number of genetically
Transmission
Host Range
Remarks distinct clonal (asexually reproducing) populations occurring as a result of strong selection to maintain host specificity and perhaps geographic isolation (Shull and Hamer, 1994). However, sexual recombination has been reported to occur in wild populations in South and South-East Asia (Zeigler, 1998) and parasexual recombination has been demonstrated in field populations (Zeigler et al., 1997). Examination of MGR586 DNAfingerprint diversity of a collection of P. grisea from the United States identified eight lineages (Levy et al., 1991; Xia et al., 1993). The population genetics of M. grisea were analyzed in a center of rice diversity (the Uttar Pradesh hills of the Indian Himalayas) using multilocus and single-, or low-copy DNA markers. It was observed that Himalayan M. grisea populations are diverse and dynamic and the structure of some populations may be affected to some extent by sexual recombination (Kumar et al., 1999).Natural enemies reported are Acidovorax avenae subsp. avenae (bacterial leaf blight), Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus ear rot), Trichoderma harzianum, T. koningii,
60
Transmission
Host Range
Remarks
T. pseudokoningii (CAB International, 2005). Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. Gams & D. Hawksw. Sheath rot Seed Andaman and Nicobar Oryza rufipogon, Islands, Andhra O. sativa Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy 1987; CAB International, 2005) The disease caused upto 57% loss in South India (Mohan and Subramanian, 1978) and in West Bengal, Chakravarty and Biswas (1978) reported yield losses of 10-26% (average estimate of 14%). In the Punjab, averages of 30% disease incidence and 70% disease severity, with 15-35% grain chaffiness were reported. In severe cases, 100% seed sterility and no panicle emergence were observed (Raina and Singh, 1980). In 1982, sheath rot caused losses of upto 50% (Kang and Rattan, 1983). Severe sheath rot infection was observed to affect the number of filled spikelets, the quality of rice grains, the 1000-grain weight, seed germination percentage and the protein content of grains (Vidhyasekaran et al., 1984). Reduction in sheath rot disease index due to treatment with Pseudomonas fluorescens was reported to vary from 32 to 42% in the five rice cultivars tested, with corresponding yield increases of 3-62% (Sakthivel and Gnanamanickam, 1987). Natural enemies reported are Bipolaris zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] P. fluorescens and culture filtrates of B.
Transmission
Host Range
Remarks zeicola [Cochliobolus carbonum] completely inhibited mycelial growth of S. oryzae (Viswanathan and Narayanasamy, 1990).
Sphaerulina oryzina Hara Narrow brown leaf spot
Seed
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (SanneGowda et al., 1973; Kannaiyan,1979; Singh, 1988; CAB International, 2005)
Oryza sativa
Narrow brown leaf spot was of significant concern in the USA in the 1930s and 1940s because of the high degree of susceptibility in some commercial cultivars (Ou, 1985). The disease may cause severe damage to susceptible varieties by reducing the green surface area of leaves, resulting in death of the leaves and sheaths (Misra et al., 1994). The disease has a low economic impact when resistant cultivars are used, but in the US, new cultivars become susceptible within 34 years of release (Groth et al., 1990). Many physiological races have been identified on the basis of reactions on differential varieties of rice (Padwick, 1950; Estrada et al., 1981; Sah and Rush, 1988). Field experiments during the rainy seasons of 1986 and 1987 indicated that an increase of 1% in sheath blight incidence resulted in a 0.38% loss in grain yield (Saikia and Baruah, 1990). The losses due to sheath blight have been reported to vary from 5-13.5 %
Thanatephorus Seed cucumeris (Frank) Donk Sheath blight
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Arachis hypogaea, Beta vulgaris var. saccharifera, Brassica napus var. napus, B.oleracea var. botrytis, B. oleracea var. capitata, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Capsicum annuum, Citrus , Cucumis sativus, , Daucus carota, Elaeis guineensis, Glycine max, Hordeum vulgare, Lactuca sativa, Lupinus,
62
Transmission
Geographical Distribution Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal), West Bengal (Reddy and Reddy, 1987; Bilgrami et al., 1991)
Host Range Lycopersicon esculentum, Manihot esculenta, Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa, Oxalis tuberosa, Phaseolus, Raphanus sativus, Solanum melongena, S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Trifolium, Triticum, T. aestivum, Tulipa, Ullucus tuberosus, Vigna radiata, V. unguiculata, Zea mays
Remarks in Punjab (http://www.tifac.org.in/ itsap/disease.htm). Chien and Chung (1963) studied 300 isolates from Taiwan, inoculated on 16 rice cultivars. Based on the degree of pathogenicity, they classified the 300 isolates into 7 cultural types and 6 physiologic races. Isolates differing in virulence were also reported by Tsai (1973) among 40 single basidiospore cultures, and by Haque (1975) among 25 field isolates, but no distinct differential reaction was noticed. Although earlier studies suggested that AG-1 IA represented a homogeneous group of isolates, recent investigations support the hypothesis that the sheath blight pathogen is far more diverse than previously assumed. Knowledge of field populations of this pathogen is still scarce, particularly in tropical agroecosystems (Banniza et al., 1999). Natural enemies reported are protozoa, nematodes, Collembola, earthworms, mycoparasitic fungi including Fusarium spp., Gliocladium spp., Pythium spp., Trichoderma spp., Verticillium spp. and bacterial antagonists such as Pseudomonas spp., and Actinomycetes (CAB International, 2005).
Pathogen Common Name Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.) Tak. False smut
Transmission Seed
Geographical Distribution Andaman and Nicobar Oryza sativa Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh (including Uttaranchal) (Tyagi and Sharma, 1978; Singh, 1984; Sharma and Chaudhury, 1986; Reddy and Reddy, 1987)
Host Range
Remarks False smut has been considered a minor disease, but sporadic severe incidences have been reported that cause losses because grain weight decreases as a result of the number of smutted balls that replace grains per panicle (Singh and Dube, 1978). In India, losses varied from 7 to 75% (Agarwal and Verma 1981). In Uttar Pradesh, yield losses upto 44% were observed by Singh and Dube (1978). In Punjab, yield losses upto 16.8% were reported (Dhindsa et al., 1991). This disease reduced the yield of the cv. Mashuri by 9.2% by increasing numbers of chaffy grains and decreasing grain weight. It may become economically important under favourable conditions (Baruah et al., 1992).
64
SECTION IX ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) DOCUMENT - STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA IN INDIA
SECTION IX - STATUS OF TRANSGENIC RICE IN INDIA

The ever-increasing human population especially in the developing countries and various biotic and abiotic stresses has posed a challenge to boost the rice production in a limited cultivated land. Genetically engineered plants with genes expressing desirable traits can be produced in a relatively short time with more precision and can be of direct value in the agri-food industry. More recent applications of biotechnology to rice breeding, particularly genetic transformation of rice, was started in late 1980s. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, particle gun bombardment and Agrobacterium have been used to mediate gene transfer. Among these, PEG has had only limited use in recent years. Electroporation directly introduces foreign genes into the protoplasts. Improvement in efficiency and stability of regeneration from protoplasts to plantlets is another factor contributing to the development of this method. The biolistic (particle gun bombardment) method directly introduces foreign genes into regenerable plant cells such as scutellum cells. The main merit of this method is that it eliminates the problems of regeneration from protoplasts and minimizes the possibility of the occurrence of somaclonal variation during the regeneration process. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in rice has also been employed successfully. Its main merit includes insertion of a more precise gene construct, including promoters and marker genes on the plasmids, which results in the improved efficiency of gene introduction as well as more stable expression and inheritance of the transgenes. After the introduction of foreign genes into rice plant tissue, a suitable selection system is required to select plants that have been successfully transformed. In the case of rice, selectable markers usually constitute genes that confer resistance to antibiotics. Among them, kanamycin was used in early stages, but most of the recent successful results of rice transformation have been obtained using hygromycin and geneticin (G418) due to their more efficient and stable function in selection procedures. Several agronomically important genes have been introduced into rice to improve resistance/ tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses using various available transformation methods. Mohanty et al. (1999) reported Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of an elite indica rice variety Pusa Basmati 1 using the gene construct having npt II gene for hygromycin resistance and gus gene encoding -D-glucuronidase. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of other indica varieties is also under progress. Two Bt rice transgenic varieties of IR64 and Pusa Basmati 1 using the gene constructs cry 1Ac have been developed by Khanna and Raina in 2002. These transgenic rice plants expressed modified endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis and showed enhanced resistance to yellow stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulas). The evaluation of generated rice transgenic lines, in particular the bioassays along with the field evaluations were undertaken successfully (Annual Report 20022003; NRC on Plant Biotechnology, Raina et al., 2002). It is expected that transformed rice plants with modified/desired traits will be released in near future, supported by developments both in basic genome research and in transformation technologies in India. Carefully planned commercialization and monitoring of transgenic crops after evaluation of potential risks would be required to sustain biodiversity and to harness the benefits of these crops.
SECTION X - REFERENCES 65
SECTION X - REFERENCES
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Document on Biology of Rice (Oryza sativa L.

Gurinder Jit Randhawa Shashi Bhalla V. Celia Chalam Vandana Tyagi

Desh Deepak Verma Manoranjan Hota

Copies can be obtained from : The Director

Printed by : Alpha Lithographics Inc., New Delhi-110028 Ph.: 9811199620, 41495131

(Gurinder Jit Randhawa) Project Investigator

SECTION I SECTION II SECTION III SECTION IV

SECTION VIII SECTION IX SECTION X

SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT

SECTION I - RICE AS A CROP PLANT

SECTION II - TAXONOMIC STATUS

SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY

SECTION III - CENTRE OF ORIGIN/ DIVERSITY

W ee d y an n u a l race s O . spon ta nea O . stap fii

O . sativ a (A A ) Tem p erate ja po nica

Ja pon ica Tro p ic al ja po nica ( Ja van ic a)

SECTION IV - BOTANY OF RICE

SECTION IV - BOTANY OF RICE

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

SECTION IV - BOTANY OF RICE

SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

SECTION V - REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

Weedy Breviligulata Sativa Indica Japonica

SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 11

SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

SECTION VI CULTIVATION OF RICE IN INDIA 13

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 15

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

Badshahbhog, Malbhog, Prasadbhog

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka

Basmati 370, Muskh Budgi, Ranbir Basmati Kagasali, Sindigi local

Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 17

Basmati 217, Basmati 370 Kala Badal, Kamod, Nawabi kolam

Uttar Pradesh /Uttaranchal

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu

KRH-1 CNRH-3 DRRH-1

1994 1995 1996

Karnataka West Bengal Andhra Pradesh

120-125 125-130 125-130

6.02 7.49 7.30

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 19

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh

115-120 120-125 115-120 125-130 125-130

6.80 6.25 7.10 6.15 6.15

Pusa RH-10 Hybrid6444

Pusa- 6A/ PRR-78 6CO-2/ 6MO-5

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA

SECTION VII - RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN INDIA 21

Grassy stunt resistance Tungro tolerance Cytoplasmic male sterility

Tolerance to aluminium toxicity Yield enhancing loci

QTL yld1 yld2 Source: Brar and Khush, 2003

DOCUMENT ON BIOLOGY OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) IN INDIA