SAMPLE QUESTIONS & SOLUTIONS

FOR
CE-4012 CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
(First Semester)
















B.Tech (Second Year)
Civil Engineering
February, 2009

1
Chapter (1) Safety Engineering
Q-1.(a) Why an accident-prevention program?
Solution: An accident-prevention program should be inaugurated on every project in order
to reduce the cost of construction measured in terms of;
1. Human lives sacrificed
2. Temporary and permanent injuries to workers
3. Loss of materials resulting from accidents
4. Loss of or damage to equipment
5. The cost of workmens compensation insurance
6. Loss of time because of accidents

Q-1.(b) Describe the indirect cost of accidents.
Solution: The indirect cost of accidents include
1. Cost of lost time of injured employee
2. Cost of lost time by other employee who stop work because of an accident
3. Cost of lost time by supervisory staff to
a. Assist the injured employee
b. Investigate the cause of the accident
c. Arrange for someone to replace the injured employee
d. Prepare an accident report
4. Cost due to damaged equipment or other property
5. Cost due to spoilage of materials
6. Cost due to delayed progress on the project
7. Cost of paying wages to the injured employee during the period of injury
8. Cost of lost production resulting from the slowing down of other employees for a
while following an accident

Q-1.(c) Write the definitions of the followings:
(i) injury-frequency rate
(ii) injury-severity rate
(iii) injury index
Solution:
(i) The injury-frequency rate is defined as the number of disabling injuries per 1,000,000
man-hours worked.
2
Injury-frequency rate =
hr worked - man no
1,000,000 injuries disabling no


(ii) The injury-severity rate is defined as the number of days of lost time because of
injuries per 1,000 man-hours worked.
Injury-severity rate =
hr worked - man no
1,000 lost days no


(iii) The injury index is expressed by,
Injury index =
1,000
rate severity rate Frequency


Q-2. Write the safety programs. Describe the any five safety programs for construction.
Solution:
1. Secure the full support of top management. The employees in an organization cannot
be expected to maintain an interest in a program unless management is willing to
promote such an interest. After all, management will derive the greatest benefit from
an effective safety program, and it should be willing to assume a leadership in
promoting the program.
2. Designate someone in the organization to direct the safety program. Any program as
important as safety should be placed under the direction of a capable person. The
responsible for all safety training and should have authority to inspect all operations
to assure that adequate safety practices are adopted.
3. Publicize your safety program. Let each employee know that you have a safety
program. Tell him how he can contribute to its success. Tell him how he will benefit
from a reduction in accidents. When an accident does occur, let the employees know
how it occurred and how it could have been prevented.
6. Indoctrinate new employees. Give all new employees know immediately that he will
be required to observe safety practices. Inform him of the hazards of his work, and
explain how he can reduce the danger of accidents to himself and to other workers.
9. Maintain adequate first-aid facilities. Many minor injuries can be treated at the job
site if first-aid facilities are maintained. Some member of the staff should be prepared
to provide this treatment, and each employee should know how to secure it when it is
needed.
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6. Q-3. Describe the safety procedure for equipment operations.
Solution: Safety procedure for equipment operations are
- Require operators and mechanics to use steps and hand holds when mounting
equipment
- Utilize guides or signalmen when the operators visibility is limited or when there is
danger to nearby workers. Backup alarms or guides must be used when equipment
operates in reverse.
- Exercise extreme caution and comply with safety regulations when operating near
high-voltage lines. In a high-voltage line, the operator should attempt to move the
equipment enough to break contact. If unsuccessful, the operator should remain on the
equipment until the line can be deenergized.
- Make sure machines are equipped with required safety features and operators use seat
belts when provided.
- Use care when operating equipment on side slopes to prevent overturning. When
operating cranes, be extremely careful not to exceed safe load limits for the operating
radius and boom position. Electronic load indicators are available.
- Do not allow workers to ride on equipment unless proper seating is provided.
- Haul roads must be properly maintained. Items to check include condition of the road
surface (holes, slippery surface, excess dust), visibility (curves, obstacles,
intersections, and dust), and adequate width for vehicles to pass (unless one-way).
- Park equipment with the brake set, blade and ignition key removed at the end of work.
- Equipment used for land clearing must be equipped with overhead and rear canopy
protection. Workers engaged in clearing must be protected from the hazards of irritant
and toxic plants and instructed in the first-aid treatment for such hazards.
- Take positive action to ensure that equipment under repair cannot be accidentally
operated.
- Utilized blocking, cribbing or other positive support when employees must work
under heavy loads supported by cables, jacks, or hydraulic systems.
- Ensure that any guards or safety devices removed during equipment repair are
promptly replaced.
- Shut down engines and do not allow smoking during refueling.

Q-4.(a) Describe the safety procedure for construction plant.
Solution: The safety procedure for construction plant includes
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- Set equipment containing hot or flammable fluids on firm foundations to prevent
overturning. Clearly mark high-temperature lines and containers to prevent burns. Be
especially careful of live steam. Provide fire extinguishers and other required safety
equipment.
- Aggregate bins and batching plants should be emptied before performing major
repairs.
- When electrical equipment is being repaired, shut off and tag electrical circuits.
- Ensure that wire rope and cable is of the proper size and strength, well maintained,
and inspected at least weekly.

Q-4.(b) Describe the safety procedure for excavations.
Solution: The safety procedure for excavations includes
- The sides of excavations must be properly shored or sloped to the angle of repose to
prevent cave-ins. OSHA regulations require that banks over 5ft must be shored, cut
back to a stable slope, or otherwise protected.
- Avoid the operation of equipment near the top edge of an excavation, because this
increases the change of slope failure. The storage of materials near the top edge of an
excavation, vibration, and the presence of water also increase the chance of slope
failure. When this condition cannot be avoided, additional measures must be taken to
increase slope stability. If workers are required to enter the excavation, no spoil or
other material may be stored within 2ft of the edge of the excavation.
- Ensure that workers are not allowed under loads being handled by excavators. Watch
out for buried lines and containers when excavating. Possible hazards include toxic
and flammable gases, electricity, and collapse of side slopes due to sudden flammable
material away from the fire and get the gas turned off as quickly as possible. Do not
attempt to extinguish the fire, because an accumulation of unburned gas poses a
greater threat than does a fire.

Q-5.(a) Describe the safety procedure for construction of structure.
Solution: The safety procedure for construction of structure includes
- Properly guard all opening above ground level.
- Provide guard rails, safety line, safety belts, and or safety nets for workers on
scaffolds or steelwork.
- Ensure that temporary structures are properly designed, constructed, and braced.
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- Special caution should be exercised in high-rise concrete construction. Forms must be
of adequate strength and properly braced. The rate of pour must be maintained at or
below design limits. Shoring and re-shoring must be adequately braced and not
removed until the concrete had developed the required strength.

Q-5.(b) Describe the safety procedure for over-water construction.
Solution: Marine or over-water construction operations present all of the usual construction
hazards plus additional hazards posed by the marine environment. These additional hazards
include drowning, slippery surface, increased tripping and height hazards as well as weather
and wave action. Some of the major safety precautions that should be taken are listed below
Unless workers can safely step onto vessels, a ramp or safe walkway must be
provided. Access ways must be adequately illuminated, free of obstruction, and located clear
of suspended loads.
Working areas should have non-slip surfaces, clear of obstructions, and adequate
handrails.
Workers on unguarded decks or surfaces over-water must wear approved life jackets
or buoyant vests. Life rings and a rescue boat must also be available. Workers more than 25ft
above a water surface must be protected by safety belts, safety nets, or similar protective
equipment.

Chapter (2) Foundations
Q-6. Discuss on soil densification.
Solution: If the underlying soil can be densified, the allowable bearing pressure on the soil
surface will be in creased. As a result, it may be possible to use spread footings for building
loads. One method for densifying foundation soils composed of clean sand or gravel is called
Vibrofloation. Viabrofloation is the trade name for a process of cohesionless foundation soils
by inserting a probe or vibrofloat that vibrates and jets water into the soil. The vibrofloat or
densifying device is first jetted to the required depth, vibrator is turned on and the device is
slowly withdrawn.
Clean, granular material is added from the surface as the soil around the probe
densifies and subsides. This process is repeated in a pattern such that a column of densified
soil is created under each footing. Soil densification can be quick effective on clean granular
soil and often allows bearing capacities up to 5tons per sq ft or more. In such cases, soil
densification will usually be less expensive than installing piles. However, soil densification
6
may also be used together with pile foundations to increase pile capacity. In addition to
vibroflotation, other dynamic soil densification methods include vibratory compaction,
dynamic consolidation, and the Terraprobe method.
Since the application of vibratory soil densification techniques is limited to soils with
less than above 50 percents fine, a related technique, called vibratory replacement or stone
column construction, involves using a vibratory probe to penetrate to the desired depth
(usually a stronger soil layer). Then, as a vibrator is withdrawn, the cavity is failed with
crushed rock or gravel. The resulting stone column is vibrated to increase its density and
interaction with the surrounding soil. Capacities of 10 to 40 tons are typically developed.

Q-7.(a) Discuss on precast concrete piles.
Solution: Precast concrete piles may be manufactured in any desired size or shape.
Commonly used section shapes include round, square, and octagonal shapes. Advantages of
concrete piles include high strength and resistance to decay. However, a precast concrete pile
is usually the heaviest type of pile available for a given pile size. Because of their brittleness
and lack of tensile strength, the require care in handling and driving to prevent pile damage.
Since they have little strength in bending, they may be broken by improper lifting procedures.
Cutting requires the used of pneumatic hammers and cutting torches or special saws. Splicing
is relatively difficult and requires the use of special cements.

Q-7.(b) Discuss on cast in place concrete piles.
Solution: Cast-in-place concrete piles (or shell piles) are constructed by driving a steel shell
into the ground and then filling it with concrete. Usually, a steel mandrel or core attached to
the pile driver is placed inside the shell to reduce shell damage during driving. Although
straight shells may be pulled as they are filled with concrete, shells are usually left in place
and serve as additional reinforcement for the concrete. The principal types of shell pile
include uniform taper, step-taper, and straight (or monotube) piles. The shells for cast-in-
place piles are light, easy to handle, and easy to cut and splice. Since shells may be damaged
during driving, they should be visually inspected before filling with concrete. Shells driven
into expensive soils should be filled with concrete as soon as possible after driving to reduce
the possibility of shell damage due to lateral soil pressure.



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Q-8.(a) Discuss on steel piles.
Solution: Steel piles are capable of supporting heavy loads, can be driven to great depth
without damage, and are easily cut and spliced. Common types of steel piles include H-piles
and pipe piles, where the name indicates the shape of the pile section. Pipe piles are usually
filled with concrete after driving to obtain additional strength. The principal disadvantage of
steel pile is its high cost.

Q-8.(b) Discuss on composite piles.
Solution: Composite piles are piles made up of two or more different materials. For example,
the lower section of pile might be timber while the upper section might be a shell pile. This
would be an economic pile for use where the lower section would be continuously submerged
while the upper section would be exposed to decay.

Q-8.(c) Discuss on bulb piles.
Solution: Bulb piles are also known as compacted concrete piles, Franki piles, and pressure
injected footings. They are a special form of cast-in-place concrete pile in which an enlarged
base is formed driving. The enlarged base increases the effectiveness of the pile as an end
bearing pile. A drive tube is first driven to the desired depth of the base either by a powered
hammer operating on the top of the drive tube or by placing a plug of zero-slump concrete
into the drive tube and driving the concrete plug and tube using a drop hammer operating
inside the drive tube. The drive tube is held in place and more zero-slump concrete added and
hammered out of the end of the drive tube to form the base. Finally, the body or shaft of the
pile is constructed by either of two methods. A compacted concrete shaft is formed by
hammering zero-slump concrete into the ground as the drive tube is raised.

Q-9.(a) Determine the safe load capacity of a 6 in
2
concrete pile 60ft long. Assume that the
unit weight of the pile is 150 lb/ft
3
.
Pile driver energy = 14,000 ft-lb
Ram weight = 4000 lb
Weight of driving appurtenances = 1000 lb
Average penetration last six blows = 1/5 in per blow
Solution:
Weight of pile = 150 x 60 x
144
6 x 6
= 2250 lb
8
W
p
= 2250 + 1000 = 3250 lb
Weight per foot of pile =
60
2250
= 37.5 lb/ft
K = 0.2
S = 0.2 in/blow
R =
p r
p r
W W
KW W
x
0.1 S
2E
+
+
+

=
3250 4000
3250 x 0.2 4000
x
0.1 0.2
14,000 x 2
+
+
+
= 59,862 lb

Q-9.(b) Calculate the safe load capacity of a bulb pile based on the following driving data.
Hammer weight = 3 tons
Height of drop = 20 ft
Volume in last batch driven = 5 cu-ft
Number of blows to drive last batch = 40
Volume of base and plug = 25 cu-ft
Selected K value = 25
Solution:
B =
5
40
= 8 blows/cu-ft
R =
K
V x B x H x W
3
2

=
25
) 5 2 ( x 8 x 0 2 x 3
3
2
= 164 tons

Q-10.(a) Briefly describe the typical slope failure in a pure cohesionless soil and a pure
cohesive soil.
Solution: The shear strength of the cohesionless soil is due to the friction developed between
soil grains. A normal force (or force perpendicular to the sliding surface) is required to
develop this strength. When an embankment composed of a cohesionless soil, material from
the upper part of the slope breaks away and falls to toe of the slope until the face of the
embankment reaches the natural angle of repose for the soil.
Figure Slope failure of cohesionless soil
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In a cohesive soil, shear strength is provided primarily by the attraction between soil grains.
A completely cohesive soil would exhibit no friction between soil grains. Failure of a highly
cohesive soil typically occurs as shown in figure. Notice that a large mass of soil has moved
along a surface which we called a slip plane. The natural shape of this failure surface
resembles the arc of an ellipse but it usually considered to be circular in soil stability analyse.
Figure Slope failure of cohesive soil

Q-10.(b) Explain the stability of cut bottom.
Solution: Whenever cohesive soil is excavated, heaving or rising of the bottom of the cut
will occur due to the weight of the soil on the sides of the cut. Heaving is most noticeable
when the sides of the cut have been restrained, as shown in figure. A more serious case of
bottom instability may occur in cohesionless soil when a supply of water is present. If the
sides of the cut are restrained and the bottom of the cut is below the ground water level, water
will flow up through the bottom of the excavation, as shown in figure. The upward flow of
water reduces the effective pressure between the soil grains in the bottom of cut. This may
result in one of several different conditions. If the water pressure exactly equals soil weight,
the soil will behave like a liquid and we have a condition called liquefaction or quicksand.
Such a soil is enable to support any apply load. If the water pressure is strong enough to
move subsurface soil up through the bottom of the cut, this condition is called boiling or
piping. Such a movement of soil often leads to failure of the surrounding soil. This has been
the cause of the failure of some dams and levees.
Figure Boiling and piping of cut bottom

Q-11. Discuss on preventing embankment failure.
Solution: To protect more permanents slopes, such as highway curves retaining walls, are
often used. Slopes of cohesive soil may be strengthened by increasing the shearing resistance
along the potential slip plane. This may be done by driving piles or inserting stone columns
into the soil across the potential slip plane. Another technique for reinforcing slope is called
soil reinforcement. One form of this process is known under the trade mark name Reinforced
Earth. Soil reinforcement involves embedding high-tensile strength nonbiogradable elements
in a compacted soil mass. The embedded tensile elements are attached to facing material,
usually of concrete or timber, to prevent erosion or raveling of soil at the cut surface. Soil
reinforcement is often a less expensive method for stabilizing slopes than is the construction
of conventional retaining walls.
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Q-12. Discuss on dewatering and selection of an appropriate dewatering method?
Solution: Dewatering is the process of removing water from an excavation. Dewatering may
be accomplished by lowering the ground water table before the excavation is begun. This
method of dewatering is often used for placing pipe lines in areas with high ground water
levels. Alternatively excavation may be accomplished first and the water simply pumped out
of the excavation as work proceeds. With either procedure, the result is a lowering of the
ground water level in the excavation area. Hence all dewatering methods involve pumping of
water from the ground.
Figure Slurry trench construction
The selection of an appropriate dewatering method depends on the nature of the
excavation and permeability of the soil. Soil permeability or the ease with which water flows
through the soil is primarily a function of a soils grainsize distribution. It has been found that
the diameter of the soil particles which is smaller than 90% of the soils grains ( i.e, 10% of
total soil grains are smaller than designated grainsize) is an effective measure of soil
permeability.
Figure Well point dewatering system

Chapter (3) Concrete Construction
Q-13. Discuss on principle types of concrete additives and the purpose of each additive.
Solution: There are a number of types of additives used in concrete. Some of the principal
types of additives used are air-entraining agents, water-reducing agents, retarders,
accelerators, pozzolans, and workability agents. Air-entrained concrete has significantly
increased resistance to freezing and thawing as well as to scaling caused by the use of deicing
chemicals. Entrained-air also increases the workability of plastic concrete and watertightness
of hardened concrete. For these reasons, air-entrained concrete is widely used for pavement
and other structures exposed to freezing and thawing.
Water reducing agent increases the slump or workability of a concrete mix. Thus with
a water reducing agent the amount of water in the mix may be reduced without changing the
concretes consistency. Some water reducing agents also act as retarders. Retarders slow the
rate of hardening of concrete. Retarders are often used to offset the effect of high temperature
on setting time. They are also used to delay the setting of concrete when pumping concrete
over long distances. The use of retarders to produce exposed-aggregate surfaces is discussed.
Accelerators act in the opposite manner to retarders. They decrease setting time and increase
the early strength of concrete. Since the most common accelerator, calcium chloride is
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corrosive to metal it should not be used in concrete with embedded prestressing steel,
aluminium or galvanized steel.
Pozzolands are finely divided materials such as fly ash, diatomaceous earth, volcanic
ash, and calcined shale, which are used to replace some of the cement in a concrete mix.
Pozzolands are used to reduce the heat of hydration, increase the workability, and reduce the
segregation of a mix. Workability agent or plasticizers increase the workability of a mix.
However, air-entraining agents, water reducing agents, pozzolans and retarders will also
increase the workability of a mix.

Q-14.(a) Discuss on hotweather concreting.
Solution: The rate of hardening of concrete is greatly accelerated when concrete temperature
is higher than the optimum temperature of 50 to 60F. 90 F is considered a reasonable upper
limit for concreting operations. In addition to reducing setting time, higher temperatures
reduce the amount of slump for given mix. If additional water is added to obtain the desired
slump, additional cement must also be added or the water cement ration will be increased
with corresponding strength reduction. High temperatures, especially when accompanied by
winds and low humidity, greatly increase the shrinkage of concrete and often lead to surface
cracking of concrete. Several steps may be taken to reduce the effect of high temperature on
concreting operation. The temperature of the plastic concrete may be lowered by cooling the
mixing water and /or aggregates before mixing. Heat gain during hydration may be reduced
by using low heat cement or by adding a retarder. Air-entraining agents, water-reducing
agents or workability agents may be used to increase the workability of the mix without
changing water cement ratios. It is also advisable to reduce the maximum time before
discharge of ready-mixed concrete from the normal 1 to 1h or less. The use of shades or
covers will be helpful in controlling the temperature of concrete after placement. Moist
curing should start immediately after finishing and continue for at least 24 hours.

Q-14.(b) Discuss do and dont in tilt-up construction.
Solution:
Do - Pour a high-quality slab.
- Keep all plumbing and electrical conduit at least 1in under floor surface.
- Let cranes operate on the floor slab.
- Vibrate the slab thoroughly.
- Pour wall panels with their exterior face down.
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- Use load spreading frames when lifting panels that have been weakened by windows
and other cutouts.
Dont - Erect steel framework before raising wall panels.
- Fail to cure floor slab properly.
- Move crane farther than necessary when raising wall panels.
- Lay wall panels down after lifting.

Q-15.(a) Discuss on coldweather concreting.
Solution: The problems of cold-weather concreting are essentially opposite to those of hot-
weather concreting. Concrete must not be allowed to freeze during the first 24hr after placing
to avoid permanent damage and loss of strength. Specifications frequently that when air
temperature is 40 F or less, concrete be placed at a minimum temperature of 50 F and that
this temperature is maintained for at least 3 days after placing. Type III cement or an
accelerator may be used to reduce concrete setting time during low temperatures. Mix water
and or aggregates may be heated prior to mixing to raise the temperature of the plastic
concrete. The use of unvented heaters inside an enclosure during the first 36hr after placing
concrete may caused the concrete surface to dust after hardening. To avoid this problem any
fuel-burning heaters used during this period must be properly vented. When heat is used for
curing, the concrete must be allowed to cool gradually at the end of the heating period or
cracking may result.

Q-15.(b) Discuss on safety precaution in constructing formwork.
Solution: The frequency and serious consequences of formwork failure requirement special
attention be paid to this aspect of construction safety. The following are some safety
precautions that should be observed in constructing formwork.
1. Provide adequate foundations for all formwork. Provide mudsills under all shoring
that rest on the ground. Typical mudsills are shown in figure. Check surrounding
excavations to ensure that formwork does not fail due to embankment failure.
2. Provide adequate bracing of forms, being particularly careful of shores and other
vertical supports. Ensure that all connections are properly secured, especially nailed
connections. Vibration from power buggies or concrete vibrators may cause
connections to loosen or supports to move.
3. Control the rate and location of concrete placement so that design loads are not
exceeded.
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4. Ensure that forms and supports are not removed before the concrete has developed the
required strength. The process of placing temporary shores under slabs or structural
members after forms have been stripped is called reshoring. No construction loads
should be allowed on the partially hardened concrete while reshoring is under way.
Adequate bracing must be provided for reshoring.
5. When placing prefabricated form sections in windy weather, care must be taken to
avoid injury due to swinging of the form caused by wind forces.
6. Protruding nails are a major source of injury on concrete construction sites. As forms
are stripped, form lumber must be promptly removed to a safe location and nails
pulled.

Q-16.(a) Discuss on common deficiencies in concrete construction.
Solution: Adequate quality control must be exercised over concrete operations if concrete of
the required strength, durability, and appearance is to be obtained.
Structural Concrete
1. Unstable form bracing and poor form alignment evidenced by form bulging,
spreading, or inaccurately aligned members.
2. Poor alignment of reinforcing steel and exceeding prescribed tolerances.
3. Obvious cold joints in walls.
4. Excessively honeycombed wall areas.
5. Belated form tie removal, form stripping, and patching.
6. Inadequate compaction (mechanical vibration, rodding, or spading)
Concrete slabs on grade
1. Poor compaction of subgrade evidenced by slab settlement.
2. Saturation and damage to subgrade caused by water standing around foundation walls
and /or inadequate storm drainage.
3. Uneven floor slab finishes.
4. Inadequate curing of floor slabs.

Q-16.(b) Discuss on inspection and testing relative to concrete quality control.
Solution: The inspection and testing associated with concrete quality control. These include
mix design, vibrating, finishing, and curing; and testing of fresh and hardened concrete at the
job site. Mix design includes the quantity of each component in the mix, the type and
gradation of aggregates, the type of cement, and so on. Aggregate testing includes tests for
14
organic impurities and excessive fines, gradation, resistance to abrasion, and aggregate
moisture. Transporting, placing, finishing, and curing procedures should be checked for
compliance with specifications and with the general principles explained earlier.

Chapter (4) Steel Construction
Q-17.(a) Identify the maximum fabrication tolerance of a steel column in terms of length and
straightness.
Solution: Testing of concrete delivered to the job site involves testing of plastic concrete and
performing strength tests on hardened concrete. The principal tests performed on plastic
concrete include the slump test and tests for air and cement content. The temperature of
plastic concrete should be checked for hot or cold-weather concreting. The strength of
hardened concrete is determined by compression tests on cylinder samples, by tensile
splitting tests, or by flexure tests. Such tests are usually made after 7 and 28 days of curing.
Standard cylinders used for compression tests are 6in in diameter by 12in high. Beam
samples for flexure tests are usually 6in square by 20in long.

Q-17.(b) Identify the three principal types of structural steel and their strength.
Solution: The principal types of structural steel include:
- A36 Carbon Structural Steel
- A572 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
- A588 Corrosion-Resistant High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
Steel strength is designated by the symbol F
y
, which indicates the minimum yield point of
the steel expressed in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi), pounds per square inch (psi),
or megapascals (MPa). Type A36 steel has yield strength of 36ksi. The high-strength steel
(types A572 and A588) are available in yield strengths of 42ksi to 65ksi.

Q-18.(a) Discuss on open-web steel joists and their use.
Solution: Open-web steel joints are another form of built-up steel member. Steel joints are
lightweight open trusses that are strong and economical. They are widely used for supporting
floors and roofs of buildings. Bar joists are steel joists whose diagonal members consist of
steel bars. Standard joist series designations include H, LH, and DLH series. H series span up
to 60ft with a maximum depth of 30in. Series H uses steel with yield strength of 50ksi for
chord and 36ksi or 50ksi for webs. Series LH, referred to as long span joists, span up to 96ft
with a maximum depth of 48in. Series DLH, of deep long span and deep long span joists are
15
normally cambered to offset the deflection of the joist due to its own weight. Trusses are
available with parallel chords or with the top chords pitched one way or two ways. The
standard pitch is in/ft to provide drainage.
Figure Open-web steel joist
Figure Steel joist types

Q-18.(b) Discuss on four methods of handling and lifting structural steel members into final
position.
Solution: The mobile crane and tower crane are often used for handling steel and lifting it
into final position. There are also a number of other lifting devices which are often used in
steel construction. The gin pole is one of the simplest types of powered lifting device. Two or
more of these may be used together to lift large pieces of equipment such as boilers or tanks.
This is probable the most widely used lifting device in high-rise building construction.
An advantage of the guy derrick is that it may easily be moved from one floor to the next as
construction proceeds. Stiffleg derricks may be mounted on tracks to facilitate movement
within a work area.

Q-19. Explain the turn-nut method for tightening high-strength steel bolts.
Solution: When tightening a high-strength bolt by either the turn- of-nut method or the
calibrated wrench method, the bolt is first brought to a snug condition. Except for
interference-body bolts, final bolt tightening may be accomplished by turning either the nut
surface to be bolted is inclined at a slope greater than 1 in 20 to a perpendicular to the bolt
axis, a nut method must have a hardened washer under the element being turned. Hardened
washers must be used under both the head and the nut of A 490 bolts used to connect material
having yield strength of less than 40ksi. For final tightening by the calibrated wrench method,
the bolt is impacted until the torque-control device cuts off. Using the turn of nut method, the
specified rotation must be obtained from the snug condition while the stationary end is held
by hand wrench to prevent rotation. The tightening requirement for a bolt not more than 8
diameter or 8 in in length, having both faces perpendicular to the bolt axis, is one half-turn
from the snug condition.




16
Chapter (1) Selection of Construction Equipments
Q-20.(a) What is the differences between primary uses and secondary uses of earth moving
equipment?
Solution:
Primary uses The primary uses of a piece of equipment are those uses for which it is
designed. Maximum work output is attained when the equipment is used in its primary
capacity.
Secondary uses Same equipment can be used for tasks other than those for which it is
primarily designed. Generally it is used as a substitute for standard equipment and performs
with relatively lower efficiency.

Q-20.(b) Explain about the equipment selection for construction project.
Solution: The choice of equipment to be used on a construction project has a major influence
on the efficiency and profitability of the construction operation. Although there are a number
of factors that should be considered in selecting equipment for a project, the most important
criterion is the ability of the equipment to perform the required work. Among those items of
equipment capable of performing the job, the principal criterion for selection should be
maximizing the profit or return on the investment produced by the equipment.
Other factors that should be considered when selection equipment for a project
includes possible future use of the equipment, its availability, the availability of parts and
service, and the effect of equipment downtime on other construction equipment and
operations. After the equipment has been selected for a project, a plan must be developed for
efficient utilization of the equipment. The final phase of the process is competent job
management to assure compliance with the operating plan and to make adjustments for
unexpected conditions.

Q-21.(a) Write the definitions of the followings:
(i) soil weight-volume relationship
(ii)shrinkage factor
(iii)swell factor
Solution:
(i) soil weight-volume relationship
The primary relationships are expressed and defined below
17
Unit weight () =
volume soil total
soil of weight total
=
V
W

Dry unit weight (
d
) =
volume soil total
soil solids of weight
=
V
W
s

Water content () =
solids soil of weight
soil in water of weight
=
W
W
s
w

Void ratio (e) =
solids soil of volume
voids of volume
=
V
V
s
v

Porosity () =
volume soil total
voids of volume
=
V
V
v

Specific gravity (G
s
) =
water of t unit weigh
solids of ume solids/vol soil of weight
=

V
W
w
s
s

Many of formulas can be derived from these basic relationships. Two such formulas
which are very useful in analyzing compaction specifications are
Total soil volume (V) = volume voids (V
v
) + volume solids (V
s
)
Weight of solids (W) =
) content, water (1
(W) soil of weight
+

If unit weights are known, which is the usual case, then equation becomes
Dry unit weight (
d
) =
1

+

Figure - Soil mass weight and volume relationships

(ii) shrinkage factor
The shrinkage factor is the ratio of the compacted dry weight per unit volume to the
bank dry weight per unit volume:
Shrinkage factor =
t unit weigh dry bank
t unit weigh dry compacted

The weight shrinkage due to compacting a fill can be expressed as a percent of the
original bank measure weight:
Shrinkage % =
t unit weigh compacted
x100 t) unit weigh t)_(bank unit weigh (compacted




18
(iii) swell factor
The swell factor is the ratio of the loose dry weight per unit volume to the bank dry
weight per unit volume:
Swell factor =
t unit weigh dry bank
t unit weigh dry loose

The present swell, expressed on a gravimetric basis, is
Swell % = x100 _1
eight looseunitw
ight bankunitwe
|
.
|

Q-21.(b) An earth fill, when completed, will occupy a net volume of 187,000cu-yd. The
borrow material which will be used to construct this fill is a stiff clay. In its bank condition,
the borrow material has a wet unit weight of 129lb per cu-ft (), a moisture content (%) of
16.5%, and an in-place void ratio (e) of 0.62. The fill will be constructed in layers of 8in
depth, loose measure, and compacted to a dry unit weight (
d
) of 114lb per cu-ft at moisture
content of 18.3%. Compute the required volume of the borrow pit excavation.
Solution:
Borrow
d
=
0.165) (1
129
+
= 111lb/cu-ft
Fill
d
= 114 lb/cu-ft

Fill Borrow
187,000 cu-yd
cuyd
27cuft

cuft
114lb
= x
cuyd
27cuft

cuft
111lb

187,000 cu-yd
111
114
= 192,054 cu yd, borrow required

Fill Borrow

114 x 1.183 = 135 lb/cu ft 129 lb/cu ft

d
= 114 111
21 18
x 1.03 (Shrinkage factor)
Water 21 lb/cu ft 19 lb/cu ft
Incorrect shrinkage factor:
129
135
= 1.046
19
Borrow volume = 187,000 cu yd x 1.046 = 195,602 cu yd
Fill
Water content = 0.183
187,000 cu yd x
cuft
114lb
x
cuyd
27cuft
x 0.183 = 105,332,238 lb, water
Borrow
Water content = 0.165
192,054 cu yd x
cuft
lb 111
x
yd cu
ft 27cu
x 0.165 = 94,971,663 lb, water
10,360,575 lb, water
This is 1,241,941 gal, or 6.47 gal per cu yd of borrow.

Q-22. Express to improve production for construction equipment.
Solution: One way to improve production is to reduce the amounts of cycle time and
therefore make more trips per hour. Another way to improve production is to carry more
material. Another approach is to fit proper equipment to the job. The last approach is to
increase job efficiency. Care must be taken to consider all of the factors that affect production.

Q-23.(a) Write the definitions of the followings;
(i) Rolling resistance
(ii) Grade resistance
(iii)Drawbar pull
(iv)Rim pull
(v) Coefficient of traction.
Solution:
(i) Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance is the resistance of a level surface to constant-velocity motion
across it. This is sometimes referred to as wheel resistance or track resistance, which results
from friction or the flexing of the driving mechanics plus the force required to shear through
or ride over the supporting surface.
(ii) Grade resistance
The force opposing movement of a vehicle up a frictionless slope is known as grade
resistance.

20
(iii)Drawbar pull
The available pull which a crawler tractor can exert on a load that is being towed is
referred to the drawbar pull of the tractor. The pull is expressed in pounds.
(iv)Rim pull
Rimpull is a term which is used to designate the tractive force between the rubber
tires of driving wheels and the surface on which they travel.
Rimpull = lb) (
mph speed,
efficiency x hp x 375

(v) Coefficient of traction
The coefficient of traction may be defined as the factor by which the total on a driving
tire or track is multiplied in order to determine the maximum possible tractive force between
the tire or track and the surface just before slippage occurs.
Usable force = coefficient of traction x weight on powered running gear

Q-23.(b) A wheel-tractor scraper is used on a road project. When the project initially begins,
the scraper will experience high rolling and grade resistance at one work area. The rimpull
required to maneuver in this work area is 42,000lb. In the fully loaded condition 52% of the
total vehicle weight is on the drive wheels. The fully loaded vehicle weight is 230,880lb.
What minimum value of the coefficient of traction between the scraper wheels and the
traveling surface is needed to maintain maximum possible travel speed?
Solution:
Weight on the drive wheels = 0.52 x 230,880 lb = 120,058 lb
Minimum required coefficient of traction =
120,058lb
lb 42,000
= 0.35

Q-24.(a) A tractor is powered by a four-cycle diesel engine. When tested under standard
conditions, the engine developed 130 fwhp. What is the probable horsepower at an altitude
3,660ft, where the average daily temperature is 72F?
Solution:
fwhp std condition = 130
Pstd = 29.92 in
Pactual = 26.15 in
Tstd = 520R
Tactual = 460 + 72 = 532 R
21
The available fwhp = 130 x
532
520
29.92
26.17
= 112.7 hp
The probable horsepower of the engine will be reduced to 112.3 as a result of the
increased altitude and temperature.

Q-24.(b) A wheel tractor scraper weighting 100 tons is being operated on a haul road with a
tire penetration of 2in. What is the total resistance and effective grade when
(i) the scraper is ascending a slope of 5%
(ii) the scraper is descending a slope of 5%? Assume rolling resistance factor = 40lb/ton.
Solution (b)(i):
Rolling resistance factor = 40lb/ton +2 x 30lb/ton
=100lb/ton
Rolling resistance =100lb/ton x 100
=10000 lbs
Equivalent grade (%) =100/20 = 5%
Grade resistance factor =20 lb/ton x 5 = 100lb/ton
Grade resistance =100lb/ton x 100 = 10000lbs

Solution (b)(ii):
(i)Total resistance = Rolling resistance + Grade resistance
(ascending) = 10000 +10000 = 20000lbs
Effective grade = Rolling grade (%) + Grade (%)
= 5%+ 5% = 10%
(ii)Total resistance = Rolling resistance + Grade resistance
(descending) =10000 + (-10000) = 0
Effective grade = Rolling grade (%) + Grade (%)
= 5%+ (-5%) = 0

Q-25. The haul road from the borrow pit to the fill has and adverse grade of 4%. Wheel-type
hauling units will be used on the job and it is expected that the haul road rolling resistance
will be 100 lb per ton. What will be the effective grade for the haul? Will the units experience
the same effective grade for the return trip?
Solution:
22
Equivalent grade =
lb/ton 20
resistance rolling lb/ton 100
= 5%
Effective grade (haul) = 5% rr + 4% gr = 9%
Effective grade (return) = 5% rr + 4% gr = 1%
where, rr = rolling resistance
gr= grade resistance

Q-26.(a) A four wheel drive tractor weight 44,000lbs and produces a maximum rimpull of
40,000 lb at sea level. The tractor is being operated at an altitude at 10,000 on wet earth. A
pull of 22,000 lb is required to move the tractor and its load. Can the tractor perform under
these conditions? Assume the coefficient of traction 0.45.
Solution:
Wt. on drive wheel (four) = 44000lbs
Coefficient of traction = 0.45
Rimpull =
(

40000
100
30
4000 = 28000 lbs
Useable pull =Coefficient of traction x Wt. on drive wheel
= 0.45 x 44000 = 19800 lbs (control)
Pull (required) = 22000lbs > 19800lbs
Therefore, the tractor cannot perform under these conditions.

Q-26.(b) A wheel type tractor with a 210 HP engine has a maximum speed of 4.65mph in the
first gear. Determine the maximum rimpull of the tractor in each of the indicated gears if the
efficiency is 90%.

Gear First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Speed mph} 4.65 7.6 11.5 17.5 26.8
Solution:
HP = 210HP
Efficiency = 90% = 0.9
For first gear,
23
Rimpull =
speed
efficiency hp 375

=
65 . 4
9 . 0 210 375
= 15241.94lb
Gear Speed (mph) Rimpull (Lb)
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
4.65
7.6
11.5
17.5
26.8
15241.94
9325.66
6163.04
4050
2644.59

Q-27.(a) A tractor whose weight is 15tons has a drawbar pull if 5,684lb in the sixth gear
when operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of 110lb per ton. If the tractor is
operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of 180 lb per ton, what are the drawbar
pull?
Solution:
The reduced drawbar pull = 15 tons x (180 -110) = 1,050 lb
The effective drawbar pull = 5,684 -1,050 = 4,634 lb

Q-27.(b) A tractor has a 300 HP engine under standard conditions. What is the power of the
engine when it is operating at an altitude 8000 ft above sea level and at the temperature of
85F?
Correction factor at altitude and temperatures.
Altitude above sea level (ft) Temperature ( F)
8000 90 70
0.725 0.739
Solution:
Correction factor = 0.7285 (From Table)
HP rated = 300 hp
HP available = Correction factor x H.P rated
= 0.7285 x 300 = 218.55 hp

Q-28.(a) A four cycle gasoline engine was under the given conditions and found to develop
the indicated horse power. Determine the horse power of standard conditions.
24
Observed horse power = 112.56
Observed temperature = 70 F
Observed atmospheric pressure = 22.14 in Hg
Solution:
HP available = 112.56 hp
T
act
= 70 + 460 = 530 R
P
act
= 22.14 in-Hg
T
std
= 520 R
P
std
= 29.92 in Hg
HP available = H-P rated x
std
act
p
P
x
act
std
T
T

112.56 = H-P rated x
530
520
92 . 29
14 . 22

HP rated = 153.57 hp

Q-28.(b) A four wheel tractor whose operating weight is 46,284 lb is pulled of a road whose
slope is 4% at a uniform speed if the average tension in the towing cable is 4680lb,what is the
rolling resistance of the road?
Assume rolling resistance factor =40 lb/ton.
Solution:
Towing cable = 4680lb
Grade resistance factor = 20lb/ton x 4% = 80lb/ton
Grade resistance = 80lb/ton x
2000
46284
=1851.36 lbs
Towing cable = Rolling resistance + Grade resistance
4680 = Rolling resistance + 1851.36
Rolling resistance = 2828.64 lb

Q-29. Explain about the effect of altitude on the performance of internal combustion engines.
Solution: Temperature also affects engine performance. A general formula for estimating
purposes which expresses the effect of both temperature and altitude on four-cycle engines
follows:
25
Horsepower available = rated hp x
actual
std
std
actual
T
T
P
P

Where, P
actual
= altitude at which the machine will be operated, in in. Hg (inches of
mercury), barometric pressure
P
std
= standard condition altitude, usually sea level, 29.92 in. Hg
T
actual
= Rankine temperature at which the machine will be operated
T
std
= standard condition temperatures, in Rankine units, usually 60F, which
equals 520 R

Q-30. A combination of crawler type dozar (Wt. 20 tons) and wheel tractor (Wt. 16 tons)
with a load of 24tons, is operating on a road at an altitude 2000 ft above sea level and having
a 4% of uphill grade with an estimated 3 tire penetration. What is the total drawbar pounds
pull requirement of the crawler tractor to overcome the rolling resistance and grade resistance
of the road?
Assume rolling resistance factor = 40 lb/ton
Solution:
Rolling resistance factor = 40 lb/ton + (3x30) lb/ton
= 130 lb/ton
Rolling resistance = 130 x (24+16)
= 5200lb
Grade resistance factor = 4% x 20 lb/ton = 80 lb/ton
= 80 x (24+16+20)
= 4800 lb
Drawbar pull = rolling resistance + grade resistance
= 5200 + 4800
= 10,000 lb


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