SAFEP TDhATD

PPD0UCTIDN
TECHNIUES
P. SPINIVASAN
(E0ITDP)
A eId guide for soiI fertiIity and
pest management
AVRDC The World Vegetable Center
SAFEP TDhATD
PPD0UCTIDN
TECHNIUES
P. SPINIVASAN (E0ITDP)
A eId guide for soiI fertiIity and
pest management
AVRDC The World Vegetable Center
Suggested citation
Srinivasan R (Ed.). 2010. Safer tomato production methods: A
feld guide for soil fertility and pest management. AVRDC The
World Vegetable Center, Shanhua, Taiwan. AVRDC Publication
No. 10-740. 97 p.
AVRDC The World Vegetable Center
P.O. Box 42
Shanhua, Tainan 74199
TAWAN
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Fax: +886 6 583 0009
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AVRDC Publication: 10-740
SBN 92-9058-182-4
Editor: Maureen Mecozzi
Cover design: Chen Ming-che
Publishing Team: Kathy Chen, Chen Ming-che, Vanna Liu, Lu Shiu-luan

2010 AVRDC The World Vegetable Center
Printed in Taiwan
AVRDC The World Vegetable Center is an international
nonproft research institute committed to alleviating poverty
and malnutrition in the developing world through the increased
production and consumption of nutritious, health-promoting
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Foreword ii
Acknowledgements iv
ntroduction v
Heclthy tomcto seedlny producton
Su Fucheng, Va ChinHua, P. Srinivasan,
Wang Tienchen
1
Sol ]ertlty mcncyement ]or sc]er
tomcto producton
Va ChinHua and YuehHuei Lin
5
lnsect cnd mte pests on tomcto:
dentccton cnd mcncyement
P. Srinivasan, Su Fucheng, Veiying Lin, Hsu Yunche
2J
Mcncyny bcctercl dsecses o] tomcto
ChihHung Lin and JawFen Wang
61
Mcncyny ]unycl dsecses o] tomcto
Chen Chienhua, ZongVing Sheu, Chen Wenyu,
Wang Tienchen
69
Clossary 85
ndex 95

CONTENTS
ii
FOREWORD
Tomato is one of the most important vegetables in Asia
and Africa and these continents account for more than 65
of global tomato production. Tomato is rich in nutrients
such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which are
important to wellbalanced human diets. Tomato is also
an important dietary component because it contains high
levels of lycopene, an antioxidant that reduces the risks
associated with several cancers and neurodegenerative
diseases.
Tomato is susceptible to several insect and mite pests
as well as plant diseases. Chemical pesticides are being
used indiscriminately to manage these pests in South
and Southeast Asia and parts of Africa. n addition,
chemical fertilizers and insecticides are sometimes
overused in tomato production, which may contaminate
groundwater. ntensive agrochemical use in tomato
husbandry substantially increases the production cost
and may pose serious risks to producers, consumers, and
the overall health of the environment.
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center developed and
promoted a safer tomato production strategy in Taiwan
from 2005 to 2007. This strategy has reduced reliance on
chemical pesticides and optimized the use of organic and
inorganic fertilizers. The strategy is being promoted in
South Asia, and is ready for broadscale adoption in other
major tomato growing countries in the tropics.
This eld guide contains information on healthy seedling
production, the optimum use of organic and inorganic
fertilizers, and the major insect and mite pests and
diseases damaging tomato. t provides integrated
pest management strategies for the tropics. 0etailed
information on major insect pests, mites, and plant
iii
J.0.H. Keatinge
0irector Ceneral
A7P0C The World 7egetable Center
diseases has been provided with relevant pictures.
This guide has been prepared for tomato growers and
extension specialists. trust this eld guide will be of
practical assistance to all tomato growers and extension
specialists to produce safer, more wholesome tomatoes
in the future.
iv
would like to thank V.L. Chadha (soil fertility
management), Pavindra C. Joshi (insect and mite pests),
Vathew V. Abang (bacterial diseases) and 0rissa Silu
(fungal diseases) for their excellent reviews of this eld
guide. gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of
AsiaPacic Forum for Environment and 0evelopment
(APFE0) through the Pyutaro Hashimoto APFE0 Awards
for Cood Practices to A7P0C - The World 7egetable
Center during 2008. Thanks also to Vaureen Vecozzi for
editorial assistance and to Chen Vingche for help with
the photographs.
R. Srnvcscn
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
v
INTRODUCTION
Tomato (Solcnum lycoperscum L.) is one of the most
widely grown vegetables in the world. t is grown on more
than 5 million ha with a production of nearly 129 million
t. China is the world's top tomato grower, accounting for
more than onequarter of the world's tomato acreage.
Egypt and ndia together account for more than onefth
of the world total; Turkey and Nigeria are the other major
tomato producing countries. Asia and Africa account for
about 79 percent of the global tomato area, with about
65 percent of world output (FA0 2008).
Wild tomato species are native to western South America.
There are two competing hypotheses of the origin of
domestication of tomato, one supporting a Peruvian
origin, the other, a Vexican origin (Peralta and Spooner
2007). Although tomato requires a relatively cool, dry
climate for high yield and better quality (Nicola et al.
2009), it is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions
from temperate to hot and humid tropical (Naika et
al. 2005). Tomato contains nutrients such as vitamin
A, vitamin C, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and
calcium (US0A 2009); it also contains lycopene, an
antioxidant compound that reduces the risk of cancer
(Viller et al. 2002).
n the tropics, tomato production is severely constrained
by diseases and several insect and mite pests. The major
pests include fruit borer, common armyworm, beet army
worm, whitey, leaf miner, and spider mites. The diseases
are whiteytransmitted geminiviruses, bacterial spot,
bacterial wilt, dampingoff, early blight, late blight,
fusarium wilt, southern blight, and black leaf mold.
Crowers rely heavily on chemical pesticides to protect
their tomato crop. For example, farmers in southern
vi
ndia spray chemical insecticides more than 50 times
during a cropping season (Nagaraju et al. 2002). Pesticide
misuse has adverse effects on the environment and
human health and also increases the cost of production.
The share of the cost of pesticide to total material input
cost was J1 percent for tomato in the Philippines (0rden
et al.1994). 0veruse of chemical fertilizers also causes
economic loss to the grower. n addition, excessive use
of nitrogenous fertilizers in tomato production has been
linked to nitrate contamination of both surface and
groundwater (Krusekopf et al. 2002).
This guide provides comprehensive information for
tomato growers and extension staff on healthy seedling
production, application of balanced and optimum
quantities of organic and inorganic fertilizers, and
management of major insect and mite pests and diseases.
The simple, lowcost integrated pest management (PV)
and soil fertility management techniques outlined in
this guide provide satisfactory, sustainable management
and can help tomato growers decrease their reliance
on agrichemicals. A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
developed, successfully validated, and promoted the
safer tomato production strategy in Taiwan from 2005
2007.
vii
Peferences
[FA0] Food and Agriculture 0rganization. 2008. FA0STAT. http:/faostat.
fao.org [accessed J1 0ecember 2009].
Krusekopf HH, Vitchell JP, Hartz TK, Vay 0V, Viyao EV, Cahn V0. 2002.
Preside dress soil nitrate testing identies processing tomato elds
not requiring side dress N fertilizer. HortScience J7(J): 520524.
Viller EC, Hadley CW, Schwartz SJ, Erdman JW, 8oileau TVW, Clinton SK.
2002. Lycopene, tomato products, and prostate cancer prevention.
Have we established causality: Pure Appl. Chem. 74(8):14J51441.
Nagaraju N, 7enkatesh HV, Warburton H, Vuniyappa 7, Chancellor TC8,
Colvin J. 2002. Farmers' perceptions and practices for managing
tomato leaf curl virus disease in southern ndia. nternational
Journal Pest Vanagement 48: JJJJJ8
Naika S, 7an Lidt de Jeude J, de Coffau V, Hilmi V, 7an 0am 8. 2005.
Cultivation of tomato. Production, processing and marketing. n:
7an 0am 8 (ed.), 0igigra, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Nicola S, Tibaldi C, Fontana E. 2009. Tomato production systems and
their application to the tropics. Acta Horticulturae 821: 27JJ.
0rden VEV, Patricio VC, Canoy 77. 1994. Extent of pesticide use in
vegetable production in Nueva Ecija: Empirical evidence and policy
implications. Pesearch and 0evelopment Highlights 1994, Central
Luzon State University, Pepublic of the Philippines. p.19621J.
Peralta E, Spooner 0V. 2007. History, origin and early cultivation of
tomato (solanaceae). n: Pazdan VK, Vattoo AK (eds.), Cenetic
mprovement of Solanaceous Crops, 7ol. 2. Eneld, USA: Science
Publishers. p. 127.
[US0A] United States 0epartment of Agriculture. 2009. Tomatoes (red,
ripe, raw, year round average) - Nutrient values and weights for
edible portion (N08 No: 11529). US0A National Nutrient 0atabase
for Standard Peference, Pelease 22. http://www.nal.usda.gov/
fnic/foodcomp/cgibin/list_nut_edit.pl [accessed J1 0ecember
2009].
HeaIthy tomato seedIing
production
Su Fu-cheng
1
, Ma Chin-Hua
2
,
R. Srinivasan
1
, and Wang Tien-chen
3
1
Entomology;
2
Crop and Ecosystem Vanagement;
J
Vycology
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
2
With the adoption of improved high yielding and disease
resistant commercial hybrids, seed has become an
expensive input in tomato production. The seedling cost
may be signicantly increased if growers lose seedlings
due to unhygienic practices. This is not uncommon,
especially when growers follow the traditional seedbed
method to produce seedlings. The following healthy
seedling production technique has been validated and
proven effective:
- Use locally available seedling trays with hole size
about 4 cm deep and 4.5 cm in diameter.
- Fill the holes with a growing medium that drains
well, such as peat moss, commercial potting soil,
or a mixture of sand, compost and burnt rice hulls.
When the latter is used, make sure the compost is
mature, and the mixture does not contain any soil
borne pathogens.
- Place the trays on raised areas such as benches in
a sheltered place. f benches are not available,
prepare raised beds 1.5 m wide and use them as
platforms for the seedling trays.
- Seedlings should be grown in a 60mesh nethouse. f
the nethouse is not available, net tunnels should be
created over the seedling trays. Erect inverted, "U"
shaped, 2 m wide and 1 m high iron or aluminum bars
over each bench or raised bed. Vaintain a distance
of 1 m between two adjacent bars within the row.
The thickness of bar should be 1 cm in diameter.
Place 60mesh nylon net over the bar from one end
of the row to the other. Pull the net tightly over
the bars from all four sides and bury 10-15 cm of
net edging in the soil. Vake sure there are no gaps
between the soil and the net, as these gaps allow
insects to get in (Talekar et al. 200J).
3
- f 60mesh nylon net is not available, any size up to
J2mesh could be used, but care should be given
to monitor the entry of whitey (e.g., spraying of
the outer surfaces of the net with neem or chemical
pesticides). f the seedling trays must be kept in
open conditions, it is imperative to control insects
such as whitey, thrips, and aphids that transmit
diseases. Apply imidacloprid or neem pesticides as
seed, soil, or foliar treatments, if necessary.
- Commercially available growing media sometimes
may not be properly sterilized. Therefore, use seed
treatment with chemical and/or biocontrol agents
as a prophylactic measure for managing soilborne
diseases. For instance, the seed can be treated
with broadspectrum fungicides, such as captan
and/or thiram to reduce losses from dampingoff
(Hanson et al. 2000). Alternatively, seed may also be
treated with Trchodermc vrde and Pseudomoncs
]uorescens.
- Sow two seeds per hole at a depth of 0.5 cm and
thin the seedlings 2-J days after the rst true (non
cotyledon) leaves appear (Hanson et al. 2000).
- Water at the rate of 15 ml per hole during rst
irrigation. Subsequent irrigation should be given
at the rate of 7.5-10 ml (maximum) per hole daily
(morning hours preferred). f the temperature is
higher, especially during summer, apply 7.5-10
ml (maximum) per hole twice a day-once in the
morning and once in the afternoon. The amount of
water required depends on the growing substrate
and its moistureholding abilities.
- Seedlings will emerge within eight days at optimal
soil temperatures of 20 - J0C (Hanson et al. 2000).
- f the seeds were not treated with chemical or
biological agents, apply a locally available and
recommended fungicide (e.g. Etridiazole) to
control soilborne fungal diseases. Follow the
4
recommended dose, and apply at the rate of 5 ml
solution (fungicide and water) per seedling. Apply
on the growing substrate one to two days prior to
transplanting.
- After three weeks, check the seedlings for vigor
and leaf color. f the leaves turn slightly yellow or
seedlings seem thin, apply fertilizer with NPK ratio
of 151015 + 2 Vg0 through foliar or soil application.
0ilute the fertilizer 1000 times and apply at the
rate of 5 ml per seedling. Apply 12 times before
transplanting. Vonitor seedling growth; if the
seedlings are growing too rapidly before you are
ready to transplant, apply less fertilizer.
- Pemove the net and apply the fungicides or
fertilizers as quickly as possible. Close the net again
promptly to prevent insects from entering. f the
seedling trays are kept in several benches or beds,
open only one bench or bed at a time.
- Use good seedlings at the four or veleaf stage
(about 4 weeks old), vigorous and stocky for
transplanting (Hanson et al. 2000).
Peferences
Hanson P, Chen JT, Kuo CC, Vorris P, 0pea PT. 2000. Suggested cultural
practices for tomato. nternational Cooperators' Cuide, A7P0C
Publication No. 00508. p. 8. http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/tomato.
pdf.
Talekar NS, Su FC, Lin VY. 200J. How to produce safer leafy vegetables
in nethouses and net tunnels. Asian 7egetable Pesearch and
0evelopment Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 18 p.
SoiI fertiIity management for
safer tomato production
Ma Chin-Hua and Yueh-Huei Lin
Crop and Ecosystem Vanagement
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
6
0veruse and imbalanced use of manure and inorganic
fertilizers in vegetable production systems have reduced
yields of vegetables and caused environmental pollution
as well as human health hazards. nadequate fertilizer
use, improper fertilizer management, and depletion
of soil nutrients result in low yields and cause land
degradation in many developing countries. 8alanced and
efcient use of plant nutrients increases productivity and
prots and minimizes environmental risks.
Dver-appIication of fertiIizer
Excessive application of both organic and inorganic
fertilizers in intensive vegetable production systems
is very common in many countries. However, not all
nutrients applied to the soil are taken up by plants.
Unused nutrients may remain in the soil and become an
environmental hazard through water leaching in soil or
in runoff, or be lost to the atmosphere by volatilization.
All water soluble nitrogen (N) fertilizers are fairly rapidly
oxidized to nitrate after application into soils under
normal farming conditions. Nitrate is not adsorbed by
soil particles, and is therefore the most likely element
to be leached out into surface water or groundwater, or
to be lost to the atmosphere by denitrication. Nitrate
derived from the decomposition of organic matter in soil
or manure is also subject to leaching. Leaching of N0
J

to
groundwater may increase its content in drinking water,
and lead to higher accumulations in plant tissues. The
consumption of excessive N0
J

in drinking water and food

may cause methemoglobinemia; infants under 6 months
of age are particularly susceptible to this health hazard
("bluebaby syndrome"). The potential carcinogenic
effect of nitrosamines from N is a major human health
concern. Ammonia volatilization may occur from manure
7
heaps and from soil soon after manure application.
Ammonia also can be volatilized if urea fertilizer is
applied to high pH soils under hot and dry conditions.
Phosphorous (P) is supplied to plants in the form of
phosphate ions. They are relatively immobile in the soil,
being strongly adsorbed by clay particles, and react with
the surfaces of iron, aluminum, and manganese oxides
and hydroxides. Applied phosphate not taken up by the
crop remains in the soil and may be washed off the eld
by runoff or soil erosion. Excess amounts of phosphates
and nitrogen in surface water lead to eutrophication,
which causes algal blooms in surface waters. When algae
and water plants die, the bacteria that decompose them
increase rapidly and consume the dissolved oxygen in the
water. Vany sh and aquatic species cannot survive when
the dissolved oxygen content decreases. Algal blooms
pose serious problems for ecosystems and human society.
Potassium (K) ions with positive charge can be adsorbed
by the soil and can even be xed within clay particles.
However, potassium that is not taken up by the plants
may be leached out or run off. Vajor losses of potassium
are caused when the element is washed away in liquid
manure from farmyards and dairies. Potassium in water
has no detrimental effects on health, but may indicate
the presence of animal efuent or overuse of fertilizers.
t is not a major factor in the eutrophication of water.
ImbaIanced fertiIizer appIication
Nitrogen usually shows signicant effects soon after
application: plants grow more vigorously with a dark green
leaf color. However, too much nitrogen in vegetables may
result in plant lodging, greater weed competition, and
more pest problems, with loss of yield and decrease in
8
storage quality. The nitrogen not taken up by the crop is
likely to be lost to the environment.
Farmers expecting an immediate and evident effect
supply crops exclusively with nitrogen (e.g., urea), which
is available at an affordable price. However, higher
yields of vegetables will also take up greater amounts of
phosphorus and potassium from the soil. Thus, increased
yields through the application of nitrogen alone deplete
the other plant nutrients in the soil. Pesearch has shown
that nitrogen efciency declines without phosphorus and
potassium application. 8alanced fertilizer application
with adequate supplies of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium to meet plant requirements and expected
yield of the crop is crucial for safe vegetable production.
Inadequate nutrient inputs
The continuous cropping and constant removal of soil
nutrients without sufcient replenishment causes
a steady decline in soil fertility and leads to soil
degradation and desertication. 0rganic recycling is not
sufcient because the biomass produced in depleted
soils is extremely poor in essential nutrients. Vinimum
amendments and adequate nutrient inputs are essential
to make these soils productive and sustainable.
FertiIity management for safer vegetabIe
production
1. Add nutrients to repIenish stocks in the soiI
Use a combination of organic and inorganic fertiIizers
to improve soiI fertiIity: The inorganic fertilizer provides
higher available nutrients to increase productivity in the
short term, while the organic fertilizer increases soil
9
organic matter, soil structure, and soil buffering capacity
to sustain soil fertility in the long term. 8alanced
fertilizer application using a combination of organic and
inorganic sources may improve the sustainability and
protability of crop production. Longterm application of
inorganic fertilizer may cause soil acidication, whereas
longterm application of certain organic fertilizers
may increase soil pH to alkaline conditions. A balanced
application of organic and inorganic sources is important
to sustain good soil conditions and make the nutrient
supply more efcient. A ratio of 1:1 or 1:J organic to
inorganic fertilizer based on N requirement is a common
recommendation to farmers.
Iend fertiIizers to meet the uptake ratio of major
nutrients in crops: 8alanced fertilizer application also
should be considered between ratios of N, P, and K. Vany
organic fertilizers are low or high in N, P, or K. Application
of organic fertilizer based on N requirement may result
in K or P accumulation. However, inorganic compound
fertilizers with equal composition of NPK, such as 15
1515 or 202020, are sometimes the only source of
inorganic fertilizer in many countries. For most crops,
the P uptake is only 1/5-1/10 of that of N or K uptake.
For example, as shown in Fig. 1, total nutrient uptake
of NPK by tomato is 9.51.21J.5 g/plant at 120 days
after transplanting. 8y conversion, the uptake ratio of
tomato is equal to N:P:K = 1:0.1J:1.42. This data shows
that tomato plant has a greater potassium requirement
compared with other vegetables. Continuous application
of organic and inorganic fertilizer with imbalanced
or equal ratio of NPK may result in certain nutrient
accumulations in soils. t is recommended that farmers
improve fertilizer application by mixing several kinds of
organic fertilizers to form a desired ratio that will best t
the crop cultivated. Farmers should also apply different
10
combinations of inorganic fertilizers during the growth
period to meet plant requirements and reduce nutrient
accumulation and leaching in soils.
2. Improving nutrient use efciency
Add fertiIizers synchronized with the growth patterns
of tomato pIants: Every crop has a unique dry matter
accumulation pattern as well as nutrient uptake
patterns. Fertilizer application timing and amounts
matched with the growth pattern of crops are crucial
for enhancing fertilizer efciency. Fig.1 shows the
nutrient uptake pattern of tomato. N requirements
are moderate during vegetative growth until fruit
set. P is very important for vigorous growth and fruit
production. K is required for fruit set and enlargement.
mportant growth stages for nutrient uptake include
seedling establishment, when maximum nutrient uptake
occurs, and early fruiting, when the maximum rate of
K accumulation takes place.8oth organic and inorganic
Fig.1. N, P, and K uptakes in the tomato plant over a 120-day growing period.
(yield potential 60 t/ha)
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
0
3
6
9
12
15
18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
T
o
t
a
I

P

u
p
t
a
k
e

(
g
/
p
I
a
n
t
)

T
o
t
a
I

N

&

K

u
p
t
a
k
e
s

(
g
/
p
I
a
n
t
)

Days after transpIanting (DAT)
N-Uptake
K-Uptake
P-Uptake
Side 5
Side 4
Side 3
Side 2
Side 1
Basal
Starter
Sol'n
11
fertilizers are applied as basal before transplanting, and
inorganic fertilizers are applied as sidedressing at 20,
40, 60, 85, 105 days after transplanting. 0uring fruit set
and the enlarging stage, sidedressing should be applied
more frequently. N leaching depends on the fertilizers
applied, timing of precipitation, irrigation, soil type and
plant N uptake behavior. Split application of N fertilizers
during a single cropping period is recommended for
controlling N, especially N0
J

leaching into groundwater.
Enhance efciency through new fertiIizer appIication
practices: Vost vegetables require high amounts of
nutrients in a relatively short growth period. Sustaining
adequate NPK concentrations in the soil solution during
active growth periods is crucial for increasing crop
productivity. A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center has
developed "Starter Solution Technology" for several
vegetables: Small amounts of concentrated inorganic
fertilizer prepared as a liquid solution are applied
immediately after transplanting and as welltimed
sidedressings for tomato. Starter Solution provides
vital nutrients to young tomato plants before their root
systems are wellestablished and helps plants to meet
their immediate nutrient needs during active growth
periods, resulting in higher fruit yields. Starter Solution
can be prepared by diluting inorganic liquid compound
fertilizer (14N-28P
2
0
5
-14K
2
0) and applying the
solution at a rate of 2.4 g (240N-210P-200K mg) in 50 ml
water per plant (equivalent to 7.2N-6.2P-6K kg/ha) after
transplanting, for cherry tomato in a sandy loam soil. The
solution should be applied in a volume less than 1 of
soil maximum water holding capacity and usually will be
adsorbed by the soil surface near plant roots. Although the
concentration is very high, the concentration decreases
near the root vicinity after reaction with soil, and the
solution maintains a high level of nutrients in the soil.
12
The application of Starter Solution signicantly boosted
early growth and overall yield of all vegetables that
we tested. t also enhanced the release of nutrients
from organic composts. The booster effects of Starter
Solution application on initial plant growth are evident:
An application of 7.2N-6.2P-6K kg/ha starter solution
could substitute J0-50 of inorganic fertilizer and
half the amount of organic fertilizers. t also reduced
residual mineral N in soil, which might easily cause
environmental pollution after cultivation. 0ur research
showed that maximum yields of cabbage, cherry tomato,
and chili pepper were obtained using a basal application
of manure compost, an application of Starter Solution
at transplanting, and then followed by various side
dressings of supplemental fertilizers depending on crop
and season. 8alanced fertilizer application practices
based on Starter Solution technology in combination with
organic and inorganic nutrient sources were found to
increase fertilizer efciency, increase farmer prots, and
reduce environmental pollution.
3. Peduce nutrient Iosses in soiI
A reduction in fertilizer amounts is an effective way to
decrease nutrient leaching. Proper arrangement of the
cultivation schedule is another way to avoid nutrient
loss. For example, green manure decomposes very fast
after incorporation into soils under tropical conditions.
Therefore, it is necessary to have a successive crop in the
eld after a few weeks of incorporation to use nutrients
released from the green manure. Vulching beds and
covering crops in the eld during rainy seasons are also
effective practices to avoid runoff and nutrient losses.
13
4. etter management of avaiIabIe resources in the
system
Add organic matter to soiI: 0rganic matter turnover is
very rapid in tropical soils, and maintaining an adequate
level of organic matter in the soil is a difcult challenge.
There are many ways to build up soil organic matter, such as
fallowing, growing a green manure crop, adding farmyard
manure, compost or organic fertilizers, incorporating
crop residues, etc. All of these are promising methods
to improve soil organic matter contents. n recent years,
increasing concern about the environment and soil
sustainability has prompted interest in composting as a
way to recycle wastes back to soil. Extensive research
has developed sciencebased and environmentfriendly
composting technologies. Composting can be enhanced
by adjusting C/N ratio to 20J0:1, maintaining moisture
at 5060, and providing good aeration to encourage the
growth of microorganisms. Proper composting increases
the nutrient efciency in the compost, and also decreases
N losses during the composting process.
Adopt proper crop rotation: Proper crop rotation
sustains soil organic matter, increases soil cation
exchange capacity (CEC), and improves soil biological
properties that may be able to suppress some soilborne
pathogens. t is recommended that green manure crops
be included in the system, especially species with N
xing capacity. Solanaceous vegetables should not be
cultivated on the same piece of land without rotation.
Soil fallow is important to recover soil fertility after
intensive cultivation. Crop rotation of rice with upland
vegetables should be managed carefully, because rice
cultivation may destroy soil structure and does not
support succeeding vegetable cultivation.
14
FertiIizer recommendation practices for
safer tomato production
CaIcuIate nutrient uptakelremovaI by tomato pIants
based on target yieId: Fertilizer recommendations
depend on local conditions. Table 1 lists data of nutrient
uptake/removal by tomato fruit, indicating variations that
exist among different data sources. 0ptimum fertilizer
recommendations for each region should be determined
in cooperation with local experimental stations, fertility
management specialists, and leading farmers, or from
your own fertilizer trials, to determine optimum rates.
Target
yield
Nutrient uptake/removal
(kg/ha)
0ata Sources*
(t/ha) N P
2
0
5
K
2
0
24 177 46 J19 FA, tropic conditions, various
sources
4050 100150 2040 150J00 FA, temperate conditions
40 108 J1 164 A7P0C, processing tomato, 2005
J5 87 J0 127 A7P0C, cherry tomato, 2001
40 1J2 J7 202 PN, nutrient removal in selected
vegetables, 19962007
50 140 65 190 PN, 0r. H. L. S. Tandon.
Fertilizer Pecommendation for
Horticultural Crops, 2000
40 110 J0 150 FA0, Fertilizer and their use,
2000
Table 1. Nutrient uptake/removal of tomato fruit estimated based on target
yield
* FA: nternational Fertilizer ndustry Association
PN: nternational Plant Nutrition nstitute
A7P0C: A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
15
The potential target yields of tomato for a particular
location should be identied from previous years'
data. The amount of fertilizer to be applied depends
on soil fertility, fertilizer recovery rate, soil organic
matter, mineralization, and leaching of N. A soil test is
recommended to determine the available N, P, and K.
The amount to be applied can then be calculated based
on the target yield and available residual nutrients. When
harvesting tomato fruit, the nutrients taken up by the
fruit are removed from eld. Safe and rational fertilizer
estimation also should be based on nutrient removal by
the fruit. Consider the data from PN as an example:
nutrient uptake of NPK is equivalent to J.J0.44.2 kg/t of
tomato fruit harvested. f we assume a potential tomato
yield of 40 t/ha, then total nutrient removal to achieve
the target yield is estimated by multiplying individual
nutrients by 40, i.e., NPK = 1J2-16-168 kg/ha (Table 2,
equivalent to NP
2
0
5
K
2
0 = 1J2J7202 kg/ha, Table 1).
Convert to nutrient requirement by fertiIizer recovery
factor: The amount of fertilizer required should be
converted from nutrient removal by fertilizer recovery
factor. However, fertilizer uptake efciency by a crop
is highly variable and depends upon many factors,
including fertilizer form, timing, and placement, as
well as irrigation, precipitation, soil type, and other
management practices. n the tropics, fertilizer recovery
rate is generally low. f we assume the fertilizer recovery
rate of NPK = 401050, total nutrient requirement
for a target yield of 40 t/ha (fresh weight) is listed in
Table 2.
Adjust actuaI fertiIizer requirement by soiI test: The
actual fertilizer requirement needs to be adjusted
downward because some of the nutrients can be supplied
from the soil. The amount of NPK already in the soil can be
16
estimated by soil testing. Addition of fertilizer is needed
to make up the difference between the NPK fertilizer
requirement for the target yield and the NPK available in
the soil. For example, if the soil test indicates that 100
kg each of N, P, and K are available, you would need to
apply only 2J0N-60P-2J6K kg/ha, which is equivalent to
N:P
2
0
5
:K
2
0 = 2J0-1J8-28J kg/ha. This application amount
includes nutrients from both organic and inorganic
fertilizers.
The values from a soil test do not show fertilizer
requirements directly. Classifying soil test values as
"high," "medium," and "low" does not indicate how
much fertilizer needs to be applied to get the desired and
most economical yield increase. To make a good fertilizer
recommendation, results of soil tests must be calibrated
with crop response. When a soil is considered "very high"
in fertility, actual fertilizer requirement can be adjusted
downward to J0-40 of the calculated amounts, or to
60-70 when a soil is classied as "high" in fertility.
Table 2. N, P, and K requirements, fertilizer recovery rate, and
amounts to apply for a target yield 40 t/ha of tomato.
* Assumes nutrients available in the soil; the actual fertilizer amount applied should
be adjusted downward based on the soil testing results.
Nutrient element
N P K
Nutrient removal (kg/t yield)
J.J 0.4 4.2
Nutrient removal (kg/ha)
1J2 16 168
Fertilizer recovery rate ()
40 10 50
Amount needed (kg/ha)
JJ0 160 JJ6
Nutrient available in soil* (kg/ha)
100 100 100
Actual fertilizer applied (kg/ha)
2J0 60 2J6
17
Partition the fertiIizer - different sources and times:
Tomato plants should be fertilized with organic and/or
chemical fertilizers to produce high yields. Compost and/
or manures help increasing soil organic matter content,
which increases the soil's buffering capacity and nutrient
retention ability. The fertilizer amounts mentioned
above include organic and inorganic fertilizers. Thirty
percent of the actual fertilizer amount should be
applied as organic compost or manure (8-10 t/ha), while
the remaining amount should be applied as inorganic
fertilizer (N:P
2
0
5
:K
2
0 = 161-96-199 kg/ha).
N
Thirty percent of the inorganic N should be applied as
basal fertilizer before transplanting. Four percent of N
should be applied as Starter Solution immediately after
transplanting. The remaining N should be sidedressed
in three equal amounts at J, 6, and 9 weeks after
transplanting (WAT).
P
Thirty percent of the P should be applied as basal
fertilizer before transplanting. Fifteen percent of P
should be applied as Starter Solution immediately after
transplanting and the remaining P should be sidedressed
at second sidedressing (6 WAT).
K
Twenty percent of K should be applied as basal and J
percent should be applied as Starter Solution. The
remaining K should be divided into three splits, applied
at the same time with N sidedressings (Table J).
The rates and timing of fertilizer application need to be
modied to take into account lower yield, longer growth
duration, and different nutrient uptake per unit yield. f
fertilizer availability is a constraint, farmers can apply
18
less fertilizer, but should maintain the NPK ratio and
partitions as suggested above.
Application Timing Application
Vethod
Fertilizer
Sources
Fertilizer rate (kg/ha)
N P
2
0
5
K
2
0
8asal (pre
planting)
8and Vanures or
composts
c
, 10
t/ha
70 45 85
8asal (pre
planting)
8and norganic
fertilizer
50 J0 40
Starter Solution
(concentrated)
a
Soil near
base of
plant
norganic
fertilizer
6 14 6
1st side dress
(J WAT)
b
Spot norganic
fertilizer
J5 50
2nd side dress
(6 WAT)
Spot norganic
fertilizer
J5 50 50
Jrd side dress
(9 WAT)
Spot norganic
fertilizer
J5 50
Table J. Fertilizer partitions, application timings, and application method for
tomato production
a Starter Solution can be prepared with locally available soluble fertilizers with all NPK at
a rate of 180240 mg N/50 ml/plant. At rst time of application, test the concentration
to nd out the optimum rate for your tomato plants.
b WAT = weeks after transplanting, timing for the sidedressing can be changed based on
growth of the plants. f fruit yield is high, additional sidedressing is recommended
after 1st harvest of fruit.
c Assumes the manure contains 1.270.821.55 of NP
2
0
5
K
2
0 and with 55 dry matter
content.
19
SuppIy other important pIant nutrients: Tomatoes
are sensitive to excess or deciency of macro and
micronutrients. K deciency is likely to occur in many
locations due to insufcient or imbalanced K in many
countries. Fruit of Kdecient plants ripen unevenly,
appear yellowish and blotchy, and are thineshed.
Calcium (Ca) deciency causes blossomend rot of
tomato fruit, usually induced by water stress in the plant.
At time of fruit set, cells at the blossom end cannot
receive sufcient Ca due to poor Ca translocation to the
owers, resulting in dryrot brown spots on the bottom
of enlarging fruit. Ca deciency is most likely to occur on
strongly Cadepleted tropical soils, sandy soils, or acid
soils. Ca can be supplemented through foliar fertilizer
application or liming.
When magnesium (Vg) deciency occurs, older and
lower leaves are rst affected; leaf veins remain dark
green, while areas between the veins become yellow. Vg
deciency is likely to occur on sandy soils with low cation
exchange capacity, low Vgsupplying soils, acid soils, and
in the presence of high levels of K. Apply Vgcontaining
fertilizers or dolomite limestone to Vgdecient soils.
Vost sulfur (S) in the soil is tied up in organic matter and
cannot be used by the plant until it is converted to the
sulfate (S0
4
2
) form by soil bacteria. Sulfur is not mobile
in plants; when deciency occurs, new growth suffers
rst. Plants show a pale green coloring of younger leaves.
Sulfur can be broadcast, or banded in Scontaining
fertilizers or sulfur powder.
0eciencies of iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Vn) and
boron (8) are likely to occur in calcareous soils. Tomato
should be supplied with these nutrients when the soils are
decient of these particular nutrients. ron (Fe) is taken
up by the plant as Fe
+2
cation. When Fe deciency occurs,
20
young leaves become chlorotic. Pale yellow mottling
starts at the base of the leaves and spreads upward along
the midribs and outward along the veins. Fe deciency
often occurs in soils with high pH, free CaC0
J
, high P, and
poor aeration. For iron deciency, a foliar spray of 0.05
ron E0TA solution once or twice weekly is recommended;
take care that the spray does not cause leaf burn.
When manganese (Vn) deciency occurs, young leaves
show interveinal chlorosis with prominent green veins.
Severe deciency results in necrosis of interveinal tissue.
Plants recover rapidly after foliar spray of 0.J-0.5
manganese sulfate.
When zinc (Zn) deciency occurs, young leaves are small
with yellow interveinal mottling. Necrotic interveinal
areas occur in expanded and older leaves. Apply 40-80
kg/ha of zinc sulfate or foliar spray of 0.2-0.J zinc
sulfate weekly to rectify zinc deciency.
8oron (8) deciency affects the growth of growing tips.
The terminal shoot turns inward and dies. Plants with
8 deciency have small, crinkled, deformed leaves with
large irregular areas of discoloration. 8 deciency may
be caused by overliming. Apply 10 kg/ha of borax per
year or foliar spray of 0.1-0.2 borax or boric acid J5
times per week. 0verapplication of boron may easily
cause 8 toxicity symptoms.
For physiological disorders such as blossomend rot,
foliar spray of 0.J-0.5 calcium chloride on the leaf
or fruit can ease the development of symptoms but
can not cure them completely. mproving soil and crop
management to enhance the root activity of crops are
the major countermeasures to avoid these disorders.
Proper selection of varieties is another way to minimize
the occurrence of these disorders.
21
FertiIizer appIication tips for safer vegetabIe
production
- Select a tomato variety welladapted to your local
conditions and with high nutrient use efciency.
- 8lanket application of fertilizer leads to over
application. nstead, follow a balanced fertilizer
application scheme based on estimates of nutrient
removal by fruit.
- Nutrients removed from the soil through harvesting
of produce should be replenished from both organic
and inorganic sources to maintain productivity.
- Split sidedressing into three or four applications,
rather than just one. This practice increases nutrient
use efciency and reduces losses.
- Vaintain balanced NPK fertilizer application,
especially for tomato, which requires more K than
N.
- Use Starter Solution for safer tomato production.
- Vake the best use of whatever quantity of fertilizer
you can afford to maximize returns and maintain the
safety and sustainability of your production system.
Peferences
[FA0] Food and Agriculture 0rganization. 1998. Cuide to efcient plant
nutrient management. Land and Water 0evelopment 0ivision.
Pome, taly.
[FA0] Food and Agriculture 0rganization, [FA] nternational Fertilizer
ndustry Association. 2000. Fertilizers and their use. A pocket guide
for extension ofcers. Fourth edition. Pome, taly.
[FA0] Food and Agriculture 0rganization. 2002. Fertilizer use by crop.
Fifth edition. Pome, taly.
22
[FA] nternational Fertilizer ndustry Association. 2008. Fertilizer
use manual for tomato. (http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/content/
download/8975/1JJ784/version1/le/tomato.pdf)
[PN] nternational Plant Nutrition nstitute. 2008. Nutrient removal in
selected crops. (http://www.ipni.net/nutrientremoval and http://
www.farmresearch.com/nurd/Source0etails.asp:S0=7JECrop0=1)
Va CH, Palada VC. 2006. Fertility management of the soilrhizosphere
system for efcient fertilizer use in vegetable production. Extension
8ulletin 586. Food and Fertilizer Technology Center (FFTC). Taipei,
Taiwan. 12 p.
Soh KC. 1997. Fertilizer use by crops. FA Agroeconomics Veeting,
8eijing, China. United Nations. 2005. The Villennium 0evelopment
Coals Peport 2005.
Wilcox CE. 199J. Tomato. p. 1J7141. n: 8ennett F. (ed.), Nutrient
0eciencies and Toxicities in Crop Plants.
Insect and mite pests on
tomato: identication
and management
R. Srinivasan, Su Fu-cheng,
Mei-ying Lin, and Hsu Yun-che
Entomology
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
24
Several kinds of insect and mite pests attack tomato
leaves, ower buds, and fruits during tomato cultivation.
The most commonly occurring pests on tomato are fruit
worm or fruit borer (Helcoverpc crmyerc Hbner),
common armyworm (Spodopterc lturc Fcbrcus),
beet armyworm (Spodopterc exyuc Hbner), whitey
(8emsc tcbcc 6enncdus), leaf miner (Lromyzc spp.)
and twospotted spider mite (Tetrcnychus urtcce Koch).
However, whitey and fruit worm are the major insect
pests in most of the tropical tomatoproducing regions
of the world, as whitey transmits leafcurl virus disease
and fruit worm causes severe damage to the fruit,
reducing the marketable yield of tomato.
Tomato fruit worm
Helicoverpa armigera Hbner
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
The tomato fruit worm, a polyphagous and highly mobile
insect, is a pest of economic importance on many
agricultural and horticultural crops. t has attained the
status of major pest on a number of crops, including
cotton, tobacco, corn, sorghum, sunower, soybean,
Lucerne, and pepper (Torres7illa et al. 1996). t has
been recorded as a damaging pest on 180 cultivated and
wild plant species in at least 45 families (7enette et al.
200Ja).
ioIogy
The adult is a stoutbodied moth with a wingspan of
about J5-40 mm (Plate 1). The adult males are usually
pale yellow with olive green or gray color; the adult
25
females are reddishbrown. The male forewings are pale
yellow and olive green in color with light brown obscure
transverse lines; female forewings are reddishbrown
with distinct brownblack transverse lines. The hind wings
are white with a brown border. Vostly, the female moths
emerge rst, and release sex pheromones to attract
males 25 days after emergence. Vating occurs 14 days
after emergence. Female moths generally live longer
than males. n the laboratory, longevity varied from 12J
days for males and 528 days for females (Pearson 1958).
8hatt and Patel (2001) recorded a slightly longer lifespan
of about 51 days for males and 54 days for females.
The adults feed on nectar and lay eggs singly and
scattered, usually on or near the leaets, oral buds, or
young fruit. They prefer to lay eggs on the hairy surfaces
of the plant. Vaximum egglaying coincides prior to or
during host ower production (King 1994). 0n average, a
single female moth can lay about 7J0 to 1702 eggs, with a
maximum of 4J94 eggs in an oviposition period of 10 - 2J
days (King 1994; Fowler and Lakin 2001; CA8 200J). The
eggs are spherical shaped, about 0.5 mm in diameter,
creamy white when laid, but later turning brown, then
black just before hatching. The egg period is about 4-5
days, depending on the temperature. Eggs hatch in about
J days at 25C, but at lower temperatures may extend up
to 11 days (CA8 200J).
Upon hatching, the neonate larvae are creamy white with
dark brown or black colored heads and prominent spines
on the body. The grownup larvae vary in color, ranging
from pale green to brown or even black with lateral
stripes on the body (Plate 2). Vature larvae can grow to a
size of about 40 mm in length. Larval period is about 15-
25 days, depending on the temperature, host plant, and
several other factors. The larva passes through ve to
26
seven instars, with six being most common. Later larval
stages are found singly on fruit or other plant parts. f
crowding occurs due to high larval density, cannibalism
can be observed among the grownup larvae. The pre
pupal stage lasts for 14 days, and during this time larval
activity decreases (King 1994).
Pupation takes place in soil, at a depth of 2.5-17.5
cm. Sometimes pupation takes place on plant or soil
surfaces (King 1994). Pupae are dark brown (Plate J).
The pupal period varies from 6JJ days depending on the
temperature; on average, it is about 10 days to two weeks.
The optimum survival temperature for pupa was 27C
(Twine 1978). Little or no diapause is observed in tropical
areas (King 1994). However, the pupae may enter into
diapause depending on the photoperiod and temperature.
0iapause occurs when larvae are exposed to day lengths
of about 11.512.5 hours, and low temperatures (19
2JC), or when larvae are exposed to lengthy periods of
extremely hot and dry weather (J5C) (King 1994; Zhou
et al. 2000; Shimizu and Fujisaki 2002; CA8 200J). n a
laboratory study, high temperatures (above J7C) caused
pupal dormancy (Nibouche 1998).
0amage symptoms
The neonate larvae feed on the surfaces of leaves or
oral buds. However, the grownup larvae prefer to feed
on the contents of reproductive parts such as oral buds,
owers, and young fruit. The larvae make holes in these
parts and feed by thrusting their heads inside (Plate 4).
The holes are circular (Plate 5) and often surrounded by
fecal pellets. Later, the larva feeds on most of the inner
contents of the fruit, hollowing it out. Severely damaged
fruit rots and falls down; partially damaged fruit may
become deformed.
27
Plate 1: Helicoverpa armigera - adult
Plate 2: Helicoverpa armigera - larva
Plate 3: Helicoverpa armigera - pupa
Plate 4: Helicoverpa armigera damage on young fruit
Plate 5: Helicoverpa armigera damage on mature fruit
1
3
5
4
2
28
hanagement
- Avoid growing tomato in the vicinity of other host
plants, because the H. crmyerc adults can easily
migrate to the new tomato crop. t may be difcult
to avoid this situation in countries where the land
is highly fragmented. Erecting suitable physical
barriers such as nylon nets or planting barrier crops
around the tomato plots can reduce damage from H.
crmyerc. However, it cannot prevent the complete
entry of these insects, as they are strong yers. f
it is economically feasible, growers can erect nylon
net on all sides as well as the top of the tomato eld.
This method suits periurban vegetable production
systems.
- Potate crops. f growers plant tomato after tomato
or other host plants such as chickpea, corn, cotton,
etc., the damage will be higher due to the emerging
insects from those already pupated in the soil during
the previous crop cycle. This is more serious in
locations where H. crmyerc diapause during winter.
Potate the tomato crop with a nonhost cereal crop,
cucurbit, or cruciferous vegetable.
- Planting H. crmyerc resistant tomato cultivars could
reduce pest damage. However, commercial tomato
cultivars with appreciable levels of resistance are
not yet available. Cermplasm screening at A7P0C -
The World 7egetable Center revealed the presence
of high levels of H. crmyerc resistance only in the
wild Lycoperscon species, particularly L. hrsutum
and L. pennell. Efforts on introgressing resistance
from the wild species into cultivated tomato
resulted in resistant accessions, but all were small
fruited (Talekar et al. 2006).
- H. crmyerc sex pheromone traps could be used to
monitor, masstrap, or disrupt male moths during
the mating period.
29
- honitoring: Sex pheromone traps baited with H.
crmyerc pheromone lures trap the adult male
moths. Trapping can be used to predict population
buildup in the eld.
- hass-trapping: Sex pheromone traps baited with H.
armigera pheromone lures can be used to trap as
many males as possible to reduce chances of females
mating and producing viable eggs in the eld.
However, this has limited effect for polyphagous
insects like H. crmyerc; its population is always
higher due to the availability of multiple host plants
in crop production systems in the tropics.
- hating disruption: High concentration of full
blends or, at times, only one component of the
multicomponent pheromone is placed in the eld
to permeate the area. The high concentration of
pheromone in the air overwhelms the male, making
it impossible to locate a receptive female. Failure
to mate results in failure to produce eggs, or the
production of only nonviable eggs, thus reducing
the buildup of insect populations. Placing a high
concentration of sex pheromone in a slowrelease
formulation on a 5 and 10m grid in the eld results
in a drastic reduction in male moths attracted to
virgin females, which adversely affects mating in H.
crmyerc (A7P0C 1988).
- Planting African marigold (Tcyetes erectc L.) as a
trap crop on both sides and parallel to 10 and 15
rows of tomato, respectively reduces the incidence
of H. crmyerc (Srinivasan et al. 1994). H. crmyerc
adults preferred marigold at owering stage over
tomato for oviposition. This reduced H. crmyerc
infestation of tomato. t is important to synchronize
transplanting of both crops so that owering
coincides, which attracts H. crmyerc female
adults. As tomato can continuously produce owers
over a long growth period, the marigold must also
have owers during the period.
30
- Egg parasitoids (e.g., Trchoyrcmmc pretosum Piley)
and larval parasitoids (e.g., Ccmpolets chlordece
Uchida) could be conserved and/or released in
tomato elds at regular intervals to check the build
up of H. crmyerc. f these parasitoids are present
in the eld, avoid using broad spectrum chemical
pesticides, which are lethal to these natural
enemies.
- Commercially available biopesticides based
on 8ccllus thurnyenss (8.t.), Helcoverpc
crmyerc nucleopolyhedrovirus (HaNP7) and neem
(Azcdrcchtc ndcc A. Juss.) can be used against
H. crmyerc. However, proper rotation should be
followed while applying 8.t. formulations to avoid
development of resistance. For instance, 8.t. subsp.
kurstck formulations can be rotated with 8.t.
subsp. czcwc formulations.
- Chemical pesticides are widely used against this
noxious insect in several parts of the world. Chemical
pesticides are effective against early larval stages,
before the larvae enter into the oral buds or fruit.
Pesticide spraying should be scheduled soon after
noticing the eggs or during early larval stages. As
it is laborious to monitor these stages, spraying
can be based on catches from the sexpheromone
traps. However, proper pesticide rotation should be
followed. n addition, the effectiveness of chemical
pesticides in the region and the registration status
for tomato should be checked before using.
31
Common armyworm
Spodoptera litura Fabricius
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Like H. crmyerc, S. lturc is also a polyphagous and
highly mobile insect and a pest of economic importance
on many agricultural and horticultural crops. The larvae
are nocturnal and feed actively during night hours.
0uring the day, the larvae hide under the soil, in cracks
and crevices, in plant debris in the eld.
ioIogy
Adults of S. lturc are very similar in size and coloration
to S. ornthoycll (found in North and Central America)
and S. lttorcls (found in the Vediterranean, Viddle
East, and Africa) (Vochida 197J; E 199J; 7enette et al.
200Jb). However, S. lturc is the predominant species on
tomato in tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. There is
no overlapping in the geographical distribution between
lturc and ornthoycll or lttorcls in this region. S. lturc
adult is a stoutbodied moth (Plate 6) with a wing span of
about 40 mm. The adults are usually brown in color; the
forewings have numerous crisscross streaks on a cream
or brown background. The hind wings are white with a
brown patch along the border. The eighth abdominal
segment of female moths possesses dense scales.The
eggs are laid in groups of 200-J00, and covered with
brown hairs from the body of the mother (Plate 7). The
egg period is about J-5 days.
Upon hatching, the neonate larvae are translucent green
with dark thorax and gregarious (Plate 8). The young
larvae remain and feed in groups. However, they disperse
when older to feed individually. The grownup larvae are
green, pale greenish brown, or black in color, with stout,
32
cylindrical bodies with prominent black spiracles (Plate
9). The body may have transverse and longitudinal gray
and yellow bands. Vature larvae can grow to a size of
about J5-40 mm in length. When disturbed, the larvae
curl into a 'C' shape with the head kept at the center.
Larval period is about 15-J0 days. The larva passes
through six instars.
Pupation takes place in soil. Pupae are shiny reddish
brown. The pupal period varies from one to three weeks.
0amage symptoms
The neonate larvae feed on leaf surfaces and cause
skeletonization. Vature larvae feed on the whole leaves,
leaving only the main veins. Parely, they can also feed on
the immature stages of tomato fruit. However, S. lturc
does not bore into fruit like H. crmyerc. Sometimes, the
larvae may cut the seedlings or young plants at soil level.
hanagement
- Vost of the pest management practices are similar
to managing H. crmyerc.
- Castor (Rcnus communs L.) can be grown as a trap
crop along the eld border to attract the egglaying
female adult moths. As eggs will be laid in masses,
the egg masses and young larvae can be handpicked
and destroyed.
- Sex pheromones of S. lturc are commercially
available in many countries and can be used for
monitoring as well as masstrapping. Spodopterc
lturc nucleopolyhedrovirus (SlNP7) also can be
used to replace chemical pesticides.
- Chemical pesticides may highly be effective against
early larval stages, when the larvae remain in
groups. Consult the local extension agency for
appropriate local recommendations.
33
Plate 6: Spodoptera litura - adult
Plate 7: Spodoptera litura - egg mass
Plate 8: Spodoptera litura - early larvae in group
Plate 9: Spodoptera litura - grown-up larva
9
8
7
6
34
Beet armyworm
Spodoptera exigua Hubner
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Like S. lturc, S. exyuc is a polyphagous and nocturnal
insect that feeds on tomato, eggplant, hot and sweet
peppers, onion, etc.
ioIogy
Adults of S. exyuc are mediumsized moths with a wing
span of about J0 mm. The adults are usually brown in
color; the forewings are mottled brown. The hind wings
are gray with a brown line along the border. The adult
period is about 10 days, and on average a single female
lays about 500-600 eggs.
The eggs are laid in groups of 100-150 and covered with
the brown hairs from the body of the mother similar to S.
lturc. The egg period is about J-5 days.
The grownup larvae are brownish green dorsally and
pale yellow colored ventrally with a white or yellow
lateral stripe (Plate 10). Larval period is about two to
three weeks. The larva passes through ve instars.
Pupation takes place in earthen cocoons in soil. Pupae
are light brown. The pupal period varies from 711 days.
0amage symptoms
The larvae cause defoliation. Sometimes, the larvae
may cut the seedlings or young plants at soil level.
0ccasionally the larvae may feed on the fruit, boring
single or multiple holes in the esh.
hanagement
Similar to S. lturc.
35
Plate 10: Spodoptera exigua - Larva
10
36
Whitey
Bemisia tabaci Gennadius
(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)
The whitey is widely distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions, and in greenhouses in temperate
regions. 8. tcbcc is highly polyphagous and is known to
feed on several vegetables including tomato, eggplant
and okra, eld crops and weeds. Hot, dry conditions favor
the whitey, and heavy rain showers drastically reduce
population buildup. This insect is active during the day
and settles on lower leaf surfaces at night.
ioIogy
The whitey adult is a softbodied, mothlike y (Plate
11). The wings are covered with powdery wax and the
body is light yellow in color. The wings are held over the
body like a tent. The adult males are slightly smaller in
size than the females. Adults live one to three weeks.
The females mostly lay eggs near the veins on the lower
surface of tomato leaves. They prefer hairy leaf surfaces
to lay more eggs. Each female can produce as many as
J00 eggs in its lifetime.
Eggs are small (about 0.25 mm), pearshaped, and
vertically attached to the leaf surfaces through a pedicel.
Newly laid eggs are white and later turn to brown (Plate
12). Egg period is about J5 days during summer and 5JJ
days in winter (0avid 2001).
Upon hatching, the rst instar larva (nymph) moves on
the leaf surface to locate a suitable feeding site. Hence,
it is commonly known as a "crawler." After identifying
a suitable feeding site, it will insert its piercing and
sucking mouthpart and start sucking the plant sap from
the phloem. This rst instar nymph has antennae, eyes
37
Plate 11: Bemisia tabaci - adult
Plate 12: Bemisia tabaci - egg
11
12
38
and three pairs of welldeveloped legs. The nymphs are
attened, ovalshaped and greenish yellow in color. The
legs and antennae are atrophied during the next three
instars and they are immobile during the remaining
nymphal stages. The last nymphal stage has red eyes
(Plate 1J), and is sometimes known as puparium, although
insects of this order (Hemiptera) do not have a perfect
pupal stage (incomplete metamorphosis). Pupal period
is about 914 days during summer and 177J days in
winter (0avid 2001). Adults emerge from puparia through
a Tshaped slit and the empty pupal case is known as
exuvia.
0amage symptoms
0irect damage: 8oth the adults and nymphs suck the
plant sap and reduce the vigor of the plant. n severe
infestations, the leaves turn yellow and drop off.
When populations are exceedingly high (Plate 14) they
secrete large quantities of honeydew, which favors the
growth of sooty mold on leaf surfaces and reduces the
photosynthetic efciency of the plants.
Indirect damage: 8. tcbcc acts as vector for several viral
diseases including tomato yellow leafcurl virus (TYLC7).
Plants infected by TYLC7 show stunted growth with erect
shoots. Leaets curl upwards and inwards, are reduced
in size, stiff, thicker than normal, and leathery in texture
(Plate 15). Leaves have yellowing along the margins and
interveinal chlorosis (yellowing). The owers wither and
droop, and fruit set is reduced or nil. Fruit, if produced,
is small and unmarketable. The nymphs acquire the virus
while feeding on the plant sap from a TYLC7infected
plant; the virus persists in the insect, which can then
transmit it throughout its life. t has been proven that the
virus can be transferred from mother ies to the offspring.
39
Plate 15: Tomato plant infected by leaf-curl virus (TLCV)
Plate 13: Bemisia tabaci - red-eyed nymph
Plate 14: Colony of Bemisia tabaci
14
15
13
40
The whitey must feed on an infected plant for at least
about 15J0 minutes to acquire the virus. Similarly, at
least 15 minutes of feeding on a healthy tomato plant is
necessary to transmit the virus successfully.
hanagement
- Select a commercially available TLC7 resistant
tomato variety. For instance, varieties from Southern
ndia such as 'Sankranthi,' 'Nandi,' and '7ybhav'
have been reported to be resistant (Vuniyappa et
al. 2002). Consult the local extension agency for
the availability of resistant or moderately resistant
varieties.
- 0estroy healthy and diseased tomato plants right
after completing the nal harvest and burn the crop
residues.
- Whitey is a polyphagous insect; it has several
host plants for feeding and survival ranging from
cultivated crops to weeds. The selected eld for
tomato planting or seedling production should be
clean and located away from these host plants or
weeds. f seedlings happen to be grown in those
areas, cover the seedling beds or trays with insect
proof (50-64 mesh) nylon net.
- Use yellow sticky traps in the seedling production
areas at the rate of 12 traps/50100 m
2
to trap
the whiteies. Similarly, use yellow sticky traps or
sheets (at least 10 per ha) in the tomato eld.
- Neem formulations and imidacloprid (if
recommended in your region) can be applied as soil
drenching or foliar application to control whitey in
tomato seedling production.
- Plant tall border crops like maize, sorghum, or pearl
millet to reduce whitey infestations. Peective
plastic or straw mulches will reduce whitey
landings on tomato crops.
41
- Spray only those systemic pesticides that have
been recommended by the local extension service
to control whitey in healthy and/or diseased
tomato plantings to prevent further migration and
subsequent spread of the disease. 0o not use the
same compound or pesticide group continuously to
avoid the development of pesticide resistance in
insects.
42
Tomato Ieaf miner
Liriomyza bryoniae KaItenbach
(Diptera: Agromyzidae)
L. bryonce is known to occur in China, ndia, Japan,
Korea, Taiwan, and 7ietnam in Asia, and Egypt and
Vorocco in Africa. However, L. sctvce 8lanchard, L.
tr]ol 8urgess and L. hudobrenss 8lanchard may
also cause damage in tomato. L. hudobrenss occurs
mostly in high elevations, whereas L. sctvce occurs
in low elevations (Spencer 1989; Shepard et al. 1998;
Sivapragasam and Syed 1999; Pauf et al. 2000; Andersen
et al. 2002; Andersen and Tran 2006). The host ranges of
L. hudobrenss and L. tr]ol each encompass more than
400 species of plants in 12 families (Peitz and Trumble
2002). L. bryonce is a polyphagous insect and it has been
recorded as damaging pest on several plant species in
at least 16 families (Spencer 1990), although it prefers
to feed on Cucurbitaceae. The major host plants are
tomato, melon, watermelon, cucumber, cabbage, and
lettuce.
ioIogy
L. bryonce adult is a small, graycolored y. The adult
males are slightly smaller in size than the females.
Vales appear to emerge prior to females (Parrella 1987).
Females are more active than the males. The mesonotum
is shiny black in color. The third leg segment (femur) is
yellow in color, but the subsequent leg segments are
brownish. Abdomen with tergites is yellow laterally. The
longevity of adult female is J12 days (Cheng 1994). Vales
live for a shorter time than females (Parrella 1987). Each
female can lay as many as 184 eggs in its lifetime (Lee
et al. 1990).
43
Eggs are small, ovalshaped, white, and translucent. Eggs
often resemble thrips eggs. Eggs are deposited through
the upper or lower leaf surfaces. Eggs increase in size
after oviposition, possibly through the imbibition of uids
from plant tissues (Parrella 1987). Egg period is about J7
days.
Larva is a cylindrical maggot, with tapering anterior end
and truncated posterior end. The larva has four instars
feeding inside the leaf tissues. The fourth instar occurs
between puparium formation and pupation, which is
rarely reported (Parrella 1987). The larval period is about
one to two weeks.
Vost of the larvae move to soil for pupation from leaf
mines by cutting a semicircular slit, usually at or near
the end of the mine. Pupa is also ovalshaped, yellow to
brown in color. Pupal period is about 8-11 days (Parrella
1987).
0amage symptoms
The adult females damage mesophyll cells in a specic
manner, creating either a tubular leaf puncture or a fan
shaped leaf puncture. Eggs are deposited in tubular leaf
punctures. After every leaf puncture, the females back
over the wounds and feed from them. Hence, the leaf
punctures also can be considered feeding punctures.
Vales are unable to create their own punctures, and feed
from punctures created by females. Leaf puncturing can
reduce photosynthesis and may kill young plants (Parrella
1987).
The larva feeds the leaf mesophyll and causes irregular
mines on leaf surfaces (Plate 16). The size of the mines and
rate of mine formation increases with larval development
(Parrella 1987). For instance, the leaf area mined by the
last larval instar is about 88 of total larval infestation
44
(Cheng 1994). n severe infestations, several mines are
formed on the same leaf, which will drastically reduce
photosynthesis and thus reducing yield. Sometimes,
death of the whole plant occurs.
hanagement
- Yellow is the most attractive color to Lromyzc
adults (Parrella 1987). Yellow sticky traps or cards
may reduce the density of leaf miners. Traps also
can be used to monitor populations in the eld.
- Leaf miners have several parasitoids. For instance,
6ronotomc mcromorphc Perkins (larvalpupal
parasitoid), Chrysochcrs pentheus Walker,
Neochrysochcrs ]ormosc (Westwood) and 0ylyphus
scec Walker (larval parasitoids) and Hcltcopterc
crculus Walker and Opus phcseol Fischer (pupal
parasitoids) are known to occur in Asia, including
Japan, Valaysia, Sri Lanka, and Taiwan (Lee et al.
1990; Sivapragasam and Syed 1999; Niranjana et
al. 2005; Abe 2006). Natural enemies help to keep
the leaf miner population in check. 8roadspectrum
chemical pesticides should be avoided, as these
pesticides harm the parasitoid complex.
- Yield loss in tomato due to L. bryonce infestation
is not dependent on the severity of damage alone;
but it is mainly dependent on the stage of the crop.
For instance, a severe infestation (J0 mines/leaf)
on leaves adjacent to owers at the time of half
swollen fruit size, results in 10 yield loss (Ledieu
and Helyer 1985). The tomato crop in its early
vegetative stage may not require any pesticide
application to control L. bryonce infestation.
- Leafminers rapidly can develop resistance against
chemical pesticides. Pesistance has been reported
in L. tr]ol (Parrella 1987), L. hudobrenss (Villa
and Peitz 2005), and L. sctvce (Hofsvang et al.
2005). Follow proper rotation and window periods.
45
Plate 16: Tomato plant infested by leaf miner showing the mines
16
46
Spider mites
Tetranychus urticae Koch, T. cinnabarinus
BoisduvaI, T. evansi Baker & Pritchard
(Acarina: Tetranychidae)
Spider mites emerged as serious pests of vegetable
crops in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, Europe and
Vediterranean countries. Low relative humidity favors
the multiplication of mites and precipitation is the
only important abiotic factor that restricts spider mite
populations.
ioIogy
T. urtcce is commonly known as red spider mite or two
spotted spider mite. They are minute in size and vary in
color, from green to greenish yellow, to brown or orange
red with two dark spots on the body. Eggs are round,
white or creamcolored and egg period is 24 days. Upon
hatching, it will pass through a larval stage and two
nymphal stages (protonymph and deutonymph) before
becoming adult. The lifecycle is completed in one to two
weeks. There are several overlapping generations in a
year. The adult will live up to three or four weeks.
T. cnncbcrnus is commonly known as carmine spider
mite. This is similar to twospotted spider mite, but
carmine in color.
T. evcns is also known as red spider mite, and it is similar
to twospotted spider mite. This is the predominant
species in several countries in Africa on tomato and other
solanaceous vegetables. n Asia, it has been reported in
Taiwan.
47
Plate 17: White and yellow speckles caused by spider mites
Plate 18: Webbing of leaves by spider mites
17
18
0amage symptoms
Spider mites usually extract the cell contents from the
leaves using their long, needlelike mouth part. This
results in reduced chlorophyll content in the leaves,
leading to the formation of several white or yellow
speckles on the leaves (Plate 17). n severe infestations,
leaves will completely desiccate and dropoff. The mites
also produce webbing on the leaf surfaces (Plate 18);
under severe conditions, the whole plant is wrapped in
the webs (Plate 19). Under high population densities, the
mites move to the tip of the leaf or top of the plant and
congregate to form a balllike mass (Plate 20), which will
be carried to newer leaves or plants by wind.
48
hanagement
- Several predators of spider mites occur in most of
the countries. For instance, Stethorus spp., Olyotc
spp., Anthrocnodcx occdentcls, Feltellc mnutc,
etc. are known to occur in Taiwan (Ho 2000). Avoid
using any broadspectrum pesticides, as these may
kill predators, thus leading to the outbreak of spider
mites.
- Predatory mites such as Phytoseulus persmls
and several species of Amblyseus, especially
A. womersley and A. ]cllcces, can be used to
control spider mites. They are more effective
under protective structures and in high humidity
conditions.
- Creen lacewing (Mcllcdc bcscls and Chrysoperlc
ccrnec) are also effective generalist predators of
spider mites. A thirdinstar grub of C. ccrnec can
consume 25-J0 spider mite adults per day; however,
it needs supplemental food for longterm survival
(Hazarika et al. 2001).
- Spray acaricides following local recommendations.
Usually, the mectin group of pesticides (e.g.,
avermectin and milbemectin) are effective
acaricides. However, continuous use may aggravate
resistance in mites. Proper rotation and window
periods should be followed.
49
Plate 20: Congregation of spider mites in the leaf tips
20
Plate 19: Webbing of tomato plant by spider mites
19
50
Integrated pest management approaches for
insect and mite pests of tomato
CuIturaI controI
- Avoid tomato monocultures and follow crop
rotations. f growers plant tomato after tomato, or
other host plants such as chickpea, corn, cotton,
etc., the damage will be higher from emerging H.
crmyerc that already pupated in the soil during
the previous crop cycle. This is more serious in
locations where H. crmyerc diapause during winter.
Potate the tomato crop with a nonhost cereal crop,
cucurbits, or cruciferous vegetables.
- Avoid growing tomato in the vicinity of other host
plants, because H. crmyerc adults can easily
migrate to the newer tomato crop.
- Keep weeds under control in tomato seedling
production areas as well as in main elds to reduce
the availability of alternate host plants for whitey.
The selected eld for tomato planting or seedling
production should be clean and located away from
weeds that act as host plants to whitey and/or the
leaf curl virus.
- Crow African marigold (Tcyetes erectc L.) as a trap
crop on both sides and parallel to 10 and 15 rows
of tomato, respectively and focus pesticide spraying
on the marigold trap crop to manage H. crmyerc
(Plate 21).
- Crow castor (Rcnus communs L.) as a trap crop
along the eld border to attract the egglaying
female adult moths of S. lturc. Eggs will be laid in
masses, and the egg masses and young larvae that
remain can be handpicked and destroyed. Focus
pesticide spraying on the castor trap crop (Plate
22).
51
- Plant tall border crops like maize, sorghum, or pearl
millet to reduce the infestation of whitey.
- 0estroy healthy or diseased tomato plants right
after completing the nal harvest and burn the crop
residues.
Plate 21: Trap cropping with marigold to manage H. armigera
21
52
Host pIant resistance
- Choose resistant or tolerant cultivars for the major
insect pests in consultation with the extension
service.
hechanicaI controI
- 0o not raise tomato seedlings near an existing or
previous tomato crop. f seedlings must be grown
in those areas, cover the seedling beds with 50 or
64mesh nylon net to prevent the entry of whitey
(Plate 2J). f the ner meshsize is not available,
use coarser (J0 or 40) mesh size and spray neem
based pesticides on the net surfaces.
- Erect suitable physical barriers such as nylon nets
around the plots to reduce H. crmyerc damage
on tomato. However, barriers cannot prevent the
complete entry of insects, as they are strong yers.
f it is economically feasible, growers can erect
nylon net on all sides as well as the top of the
tomato eld (Plate 24).
ehavioraI controI
- Use yellow sticky traps to attract and monitor
whitey and leaf miner (Plate 25).
- Use reective plastic or straw mulches to reduce
the incidence of whitey on tomato.
ioIogicaI controI
- Apply neem formulations and imidacloprid, if
recommended in the region, as soil drenches or
through foliar application to control whitey in
tomato seedling production.
- Use biopesticides that will not interfere with the
activities of predators and parasitoids of leaf miner
and spider mite in tomato production systems.
53
Plate 22: Trap cropping with castor to manage S. litura
Plate 23: Tomato seedling production under net tunnel
Plate 24: Production of tomato under net-house
23
24
22
54
- Use commercially available biopesticides based on
8ccllus thurnyenss (8.t.), Helcoverpc crmyerc
nucleopolyhedrovirus (HaNP7), Spodopterc
lturc nucleopolyhedrovirus (SlNP7), Spodopterc
exyuc nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeNP7), and neem
(Azcdrcchtc ndcc A. Juss.) against H. crmyerc,
S. lturc, and S. exyuc. Follow proper rotation
while applying 8.t. formulations to avoid resistance
development. For instance, 8.t. subsp. kurstck
formulations may be rotated with 8.t. subsp.
czcwc formulations.
- Conserve and/or release egg parasitoids (e.g.,
Trchoyrcmmc pretosum Piley) and larval
parasitoids (e.g., Ccmpolets chlordece Uchida) in
tomato elds at regular intervals to check the build
up of H. crmyerc.
- nstall sex pheromone lures for H. crmyerc, S.
lturc, and S. exyuc in traps (Plate 26) at the rate
of 1015 traps per hectare. Place the traps 4560
cm above the canopy level for effective attraction.
Peplace the lures once every two to three weeks,
depending upon the prevailing weather conditions.
This activity is highly effective when practiced
throughout a community.
ChemicaI controI
- 0o not spray broadspectrum pesticides against
early season sucking pests. This may disrupt the
complex of natural enemies in the ecosystem and
lead to a resurgence of sucking pests. f necessary,
use systemic pesticides recommended by the local
extension service in the region. 0o not use the same
compound or pesticide group(s) continuously to
reduce the development of pesticide resistance in
insects.
55
Plate 25: Yellow sticky card with trapped leaf miners (small-sized black-
colored insects)
Plate 26: Sex pheromone traps to monitor and/or mass-trap H. armigera
moths
26
25
56
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hanaging bacteriaI diseases
of tomato
Chih-Hung Lin and Jaw-Fen Wang
8acteriology
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
62
Tomato bacteriaI spot
Pathogen
8acterial spot can be caused by several species of
Xcnthomoncs. The most common one is X. euvescctorc
(Jones et al. 2004), previously known as X. cxonopods
pv. vescctorc or X. ccmpestrs pv. vescctorc, a motile,
strictly aerobic, and gram negative rod with a single
polar agellum. 0n nutrient agar, single colonies that are
circular, wet, shiny, and yellow can be observed two days
after incubation at J0C (Plate 27). There are several
races reported. Some races can cause disease on both
pepper and tomato, whereas some are specic to tomato
or pepper.
Symptoms
The pathogen can affect all aboveground parts of tomato
including stem, leaf, fruit, etc. (Plate 28). Lesions
on leaves are small ( J mm in diameter), brown and
circular with watersoaked margins. Lesions on tomato
leaves can be confused with early blight, gray leaf spot,
and target spot. Unlike early blight caused by Alterncrc
solcn, bacterial spot lesions do not have concentric
rings. The lesions are generally darker in color and less
uniformly distributed than gray leaf spot. Under optimal
conditions, lesions can coalesce to form dark streaks or
blighting. 0efoliation caused by bacterial spot is rare
on tomato. Fruit lesions begin as raised blisters. 0lder
lesions are brown, scablike and sunken in the middle.
0isease cycIe and epidemioIogy
The pathogen is able to survive on volunteer plants and
diseased plant debris. Seed may serve as a medium for
the survival and dissemination of the bacterium. Wind
63
Plate 27: Colonies of X. euvesicatoria culture on 523 (left) and NA
(right) medium after incubation at 30C for 2 days
27
28a 28b
28d
28c
Plate 28: Lesions on tomato seedlings (a), stem (b), leaves (c), and fruits (d)
64
blow rain, clipping of transplants, and aerosols are other
means of dissemination. 0ptimal conditions for disease
development are 24J0 C and heavy rainfall or long dew
period.
ControI measures
- Potation to avoid carryover of inoculum on volunteer
plants and plant debris.
- Use pathogenfree seeds and transplants.
- Use seed treatment, such as soaking in diluted
Chlorox (1 sodium hypochlorite) for 5 minutes.
- Use copper or copper+maneb sprays.
- Pesistant cultivars are available for tomato, but
they may not be resistant to all strains.
Tomato bacteriaI wiIt
Pathogen
Rclstonc solcnccecrum (= 8urkholderc solcnccecrum =
Pseudomoncs solcnccecrum) is gram negative rod, motile
with one or more polar agella, and aerobic. 0n plates
of tetrazolium chloride medium (TTC), a differential
medium for R. solcnccecrum, large uidal colonies
with pink or red centers are distinguishable and most of
them are virulent (Plate 29b). The pathogen is a species
complex with wide variation in host range (used for race
grouping), utilization of carbohydrates (used for biovar
grouping), aggressiveness, genetic ngerprints, etc.
65
29a
29b
Plate 29: nfected plant displays: (a) wilting but not yellowing of leaves; (b)
colonies of R. solanacearum on TTC medium after incubation at 30C for
48 hours; (c) vascular browning; (d) whitish bacterial mass, observed when
pressing the cut site; (e) adventitious roots and leaf epinasty; (f) bacteria
streams from an infected stem, but not from a healthy stem.
29c
29f 29e
29d
66
Symptoms
Typical symptoms of the disease rst appear as drooping
of a few young leaves. A sudden complete wilt soon
follows. Vost of the time, leaves are still green when
the plants wilt (Plate 29a). Adventitious roots and leaf
epinasty are more obvious on tomato when the disease
develops slowly under unfavorable climatic conditions or
on resistant varieties (Plate 29e). The vascular system
of infected stems appears brown and becomes darker as
the disease progresses (Plate 29c). Wilting in tomato can
be caused by fungal pathogens, rootknot nematode, or
excess soil moisture. To distinguish bacterial wilt from
other vascular diseases, a clean stem section from wilted
plants can be suspended in water; a milky stream of
bacterial cells would ow from xylem elements, J to 5
minutes later (Plate 29d and f).
0isease cycIe and epidemioIogy
R. solcnccecrum has a wide host range ( 200 cultivated
species and weeds). The pathogen can colonize many
weed species without showing symptoms. This may
enhance the longterm survival of the pathogen in the
soil. R. solcnccecrum can survive in the soil for a long
period depending on the environment. Poorlydrained
soils, moderate to high soil temperature, and a low to
moderate pH are conducive to its survival.
The bacterium enters the host through natural wounds
in the roots, wounds made during transplanting, or those
caused by insects, nematodes etc. nfection and disease
development are favored by high temperature (J0J5C)
and high soil moisture. The bacterium returns to soil with
decaying diseased plant parts and is disseminated by
free water, soil movement, or the movement of infected
transplants.
67
Plate 30: ntegrating resistant eggplant rootstock and the soil amendments
of urea and lime mixture (a) or ndian mustard tissues (b) to control bacterial
wilt in tomato production felds. Non-grafted tomato plants showed wilting
symptoms.
30a
30b
ControI measures
- Use pathogenfree seedbeds to produce clean
transplants. This can be assisted by fumigating
seedbeds and pasteurizing the potting mixture.
- Potate with nonhost crops, particularly with paddy.
- Pesistant varieties for tomato are available, but
their reaction may be different from location to
location.
- Use resistant tomato or eggplant varieties as
rootstocks to increase the resistance level of scion
varieties (Plate J0).
68
Peferences
8lack LL et al. (ed.) 1991. Pepper 0isease: A Field Cuide. A7P0C
Publication No. 91J47, 98 p.
Jones J8 et al. 2004. Peclassication of the Xanthomonads associated
with bacterial spot disease of tomato and pepper. System. Appl.
Vicrobial. 27:755762.
Jones JP et al. (ed.) 1991. Compendium of Tomato 0isease. APS Press,
7J p.
Lin CH et al. 2008. Application of a preliminary screen to select locally
adapted resistant rootstock and soil amendment for integrated
management of tomato bacterial wilt in Taiwan. Plant 0is. 92:909
916.
Wang JF and Lin CH. 2005. ntegrated Vanagement of Tomato 8acterial
Wilt. A7P0C Publication No. 05615. 12 p.
hanaging fungaI diseases
of tomato
Chen Chien-hua, Zong-Ming Sheu,
Chen Wen-yu, and Wang Tien-chen
Vycology
A7P0C - The World 7egetable Center
70 70
Damping-off
Caused by:
() Pythum cphcndermctum, P. ultmum,
Phytophthorc ccpsc, P. pcrcstcc (Phylum:
Heterokontophytc, Class: Oomycetes, 0rder:
Peronosporcles, Family: Pythccece)
() Rhzoctonc solcn (Phylum: 8csdomycotc, Class:
8csdomycetes, 0rder: Polyporcles, Family:
Cortcccece)
Symptoms
The pathogen may cause seed rot, preemergence
dampingoff, postemergence dampingoff (Plate J1)
and stem rot (Plate J2). The decay of seedling before
it emerges through the soil is called preemergence
dampingoff. The postemergence phase of the disease
either begins as a darkcolored and soft lesion around a
major portion of stem or causes a brown, reddish brown
or nearly black lesion near the soil line. The infected
seedling falls over, withers and dies. t usually occurs
in patches in nursery beds or in scattered areas of the
eld in directseeded crops. n heavily affected soils, a
general death of seedlings may be observed.
Conditions for deveIopment
Seedlings are particularly susceptible during rst two
weeks after sowing. 0verwatering, overcrowding, or poor
ventilation of seedling nursery favor disease development,
as do cool, damp, cloudy weather or poorly drained areas
of eld, cool and warm temperatures, poorquality light,
or unbalanced nutrition, particularly excessive nitrogen.
71
hanagement
- High quality seed and a chemical or heat-
pasteurized planting medium should be used.
- Excessive watering and poorly drained areas of eld
should be avoided.
- Use high beds: more than J5 cm of height is better
for water drainage. f possible, plant when the soil
is warm as seed germinates faster, and seedlings
become more vigorous and thus less susceptible to
the disease.
- Apply J5 Etridiazole WP J,000X just after
transplanting the seedlings by drenching to reduce
the pathogen population in each transplanting hole.
n eld plantings a fungicide seed treatment may
help prevent serious dampingoff problems.
Plate 31: nfected by P. aphanidermatum and caused seedling post-
emergence damping-off.
Plate 32: nfected by Pythium spp. and caused stem rot after transplanting.
31 32
72
EarIy bIight
Caused by: Alterncrc solcn (Phylum: Ascomycotc,
Class: 0othideomycetes, 0rder: Pleosporcles, Family:
Pleosporccece)
Symptoms
Early blight occurs on the foliage, stem, and fruit of
the tomato plant and can cause severe damage during
all stages of development of the plant. t is often
observed in the eld as small brownishblack lesions
on the older foliage. The tissue surrounding a spot may
become yellow, and when spotting is abundant the entire
leaf may become yellow. The spots enlarge rapidly;
concentric rings may be distinguished in the dark brown
portion of the spot (Plate JJ). Stem lesions are small,
dark, and slightly sunken in the beginning. They enlarge
to form circular or enlarged lesions with pronounced
concentric rings and light centers (Plate J4). The fruit
becomes infected, generally through the calyx or stem
attachment, in either the green or ripe stage. The fruit
lesions attain considerable size, occasionally involving
the entire fruit, and usually have concentric ringing
(Plate J5). Uncontrolled, the disease may cause severe
defoliation, resulting in reduced fruit number and size
and marketable fruits.
Conditions for deveIopment
The pathogen can be seedborne; it also persists in the
soils on crop debris or on volunteer tomatoes and wild
solanaceous plants. The fungus is spread rapidly by wind,
rain, and farm equipment. Extended periods of leaf
wetness from dew or rain favor disease development;
frequent rain or overhead irrigation may also promote
disease development. Stressed plants are most
73
susceptible, e.y., when they are attacked by nematodes
and also during fruiting.
hanagement
- Use resistant or tolerant cultivars.
- Use treated seeds and pathogenfree seedlings.
- Pasteurize the soil in seedbeds (with steam,
fumigants, or solarization), or use pathogenfree
articial soil mixes.
- Use long crop rotations, eradicate weeds and
volunteer tomato plants, fertilize properly, and
keep the plants growing vigorously.
- Avoid planting overlapping crops in adjacent areas.
- Spray regularly with fungicides, e.g., copper
hydroxide if necessary.
Plate 33: Concentric rings appear in the dark brown lesion.
Plate 34: Enlarged lesion with concentric rings and light center appear on stem.
Plate 35: Concentric rings appear on green or ripe fruit.
34
35
33
74
Late bIight
Caused by: Phytophthorc n]estcns (Phylum: Hetero
kontophytc, Class: Oomycetes, 0rder: Peronosporcles,
Family: Pythccece)
Symptoms
The fungus attacks all aboveground parts of the plant:
Leaf lesions: rregular watersoaked patches (Plate
J6) may expand to encompass large areas of the
leaf. White fungal sporulation may be observed
on underneath side; later the lesions dry and turn
brown. 8lighting of the entire foliage may occur.
Stem lesions: At rst, irregular watersoaked areas
may progress and kill sections of stems and petioles
(Plate J7), or they may remain supercial and dry
out to form dark brown lesions.
Fruit lesions: Firm, olive to brown irregular
shaped areas that cause fruit to have a rough
leathery surface (Plate J8); lesions may enlarge to
encompass the entire fruit.
Conditions for deveIopment
Sporangia develop on the leaves, spreading through the
crop during cold to moderate temperatures (1025C) and
humidity greater than 75 for two days or more, especially
during extended periods of leaf wetness from frequent
rain or dew formation. Free water on plant surfaces is
required for the germination and penetration of spores
in the plant tissues. The fungus persists on tomato and
potato plants and in potato tubers; it does not survive
saprophytically. The new genotype attacks both tomato
and potato. Sporangia are produced on infected tissues
and are dispersed by wind and splashing rain.
75
hanagement
- Use resistant cultivars such as 'Hualien AS7EC 17.'
- Use diseasefree seedlings.
- Avoid planting tomatoes near potatoes.
- Apply effective fungicides, e.y., Famoxadone +
Cymoxanil, Azoxystrobin, and 0imethomorph, etc.
- Eliminate all potato cull piles in the vicinity of
tomato plantings and destroy volunteer potato
plants that grow from overwintered tubers.
- Pain shelters can reduce disease severity.
Plate 36: rregular water-soaked patches appear on leaves.
Plate 37: rregular water-soaked areas that progressed and killed the
petioles and stems.
Plate 38: Firm, olive to brown irregular shaped areas that caused fruit to
have a rough leathery surface.
36 37
38
76
Fusarium wiIt
Caused by: Fuscrum oxysporum f. sp. lycopersc
(Phylum: Ascomycotc, Class: Sordcromycetes, 0rder:
Hypocrecles, Family: Netrccece)
Symptoms
Lower leaves turn yellow rst and this often develops
on only one side of the plant (Plate J9). Yellowing then
progresses up the plant and the lower leaves dry and turn
brown. Plants begin to wilt at the top during the day
and recover at night, but wilting becomes progressively
worse until plants are permanently wilted (Plate 40).
nitially only the terminal wilts, but over time the entire
plant wilts. 7ascular browning extends far up the stem
and into large petioles. The browning of vascular system
(Plate 41) is characteristic of the disease and generally
can be used for its identication.
Conditions for deveIopment
Soil and air temperatures of 28C, soil moisture optimum
for plant growth, plants preconditioned with low
nitrogen and phosphorus and high potassium, low soil pH,
short day length, and low light intensity favor disease
development. 7irulence of the pathogen is enhanced by
micronutrients, phosphorus, and ammoniacal nitrogen
and decreased by nitrate nitrogen. The pathogen enters
the plant through wounds in roots and is then spread
throughout the plant by the vascular system.
The pathogen is disseminated through seed, transplants,
tomato stakes, windborne and waterborneinfested soil,
and farm machinery.
0isease is most prevalent on acidic, sandy soils. The
pathogen is soilborne and persists many years in the soil
77
without a host. Three races are known to exist in the
world and race 2 is predominant in Taiwan.
Plate 39: Signifcant yellowing of the lower leaves appear only one side
of the plant.
Plate 40: Plants begin to wilt in the top and wilting becomes
progressively worse until plants are permanently wilted.
Plate 41: The browning of the vascular system.
40
41
39
78
hanagement
- Use pathogenfree seeds.
- Five to sevenyear rotations reduce losses.
- Use of ooded rice in rotation with tomato reduces
disease losses.
- Paise soil pH to 6.57.0.
- Use nitrate nitrogen rather than ammoniacal
nitrogen.
- Prevent movement of Fuscruminfected seed,
plants, and of Fuscruminfested soil clinging to
machinery, transplants, vehicle tools, and stakes
into areas free of pathogen.
- Use resistant cultivars when available with resistance
to race 1 and race 1, 2, or use grafted tomato with
resistant rootstocks. Vonogenic resistance to race J
has been identied.
79
Southern bIight
Caused by: Sclerotum rol]s (inperfect stage); Athe
lc rol]s (perfect stage) (Phylum: 8csdomycotc, Class:
8csdomycetes, 0rder: Athelcles, Family: Athelccece)
Symptoms
Symptoms usually appear on plant parts in, on, or near
the soil. Plants of any age may be attacked. The most
common symptom is a brown to black rot of the stem,
which develops near the soil line (Plate 42). The lesion
develops rapidly, completely girdling the stem and
resulting in a sudden and permanent wilt of all above
ground parts. Young plants may fall over at the soil
line. Under moist conditions, an abundance of white,
robust mycelium develops on the lesion and sometimes
extends several centimeters up the stem of a mature
plant. Tan to reddish brown, spherical sclerotia appear
on the mycelial mat (Plate 4J) after few days. The fungus
quickly penetrates the epidermis of fruit in contact with
infested soil. White mycelium and developing sclerotia
quickly ll the lesion cavity.
Conditions for deveIopment
High temperatures and high soil moisture favor disease
development; wilting may be more evident when soils
begin to dry out. 0ense planting and frequent irrigation
promote infection. Sclerotia serve as the principle
overwintering structures and primary inoculum for
disease. Sclerotia can survive in soil for several years
on crop debris. The fungus has an extremely broad host
range. t is spread by surface water or movement of
infested soil.
80
hanagement
- The most effective control for this disease is a
good sanitation program. Pemoval and burning of
all infected plants prevents disease buildup. 0eep
plowing also serves as a cultural control tactic by
burying sclerotia and infected plant debris deep in
the soil.
- A crop rotation program of at least three years with
nonsusceptible crops such as corn, small grains, or
sorghum can reduce losses.
- Fumigation of high value crops is also effective in
controlling southern blight. Some soil fungicides
offer some protection, e.y., Etridiazole.
- Use solarization with polyethylene sheeting.
- Use biological control with certain antagonistic
fungi (e.y. 8ccllus subtls, 6loclcdum vrens,
Trchodermc hcrzcnum, Trchodermc vrde).
- Use plastic mulch or stake the plant to reduce soil
splash.
- Add soil amendments in acid soil before planting.
- Use resistant cultivars when available.
81
Plate 42: An abundance of white, robust mycelium develops on the stem
near the soil line.
Plate 43: Tan to reddish brown, spherical sclerotia appear on the white
mycelial mat.
43 42
82
BIack Ieaf moId (Cercospora Ieaf moId)
Caused by: Pseudocercosporc ]ulyenc (Phylum: As
comycotc, Class: 0othdeomycetes, 0rder Ccpnodcles,
Family: Mycosphcerellccece)
Symptoms
Yellow spots appear on the upper leaf surface at early
stage of infection; gray to black conidial sporulation
occurs predominantly on the lower leaf surface (Plate 44)
under humid conditions. Numerous lesions may coalesce
to cover most of leaf surface. Leaves roll upward,
exposing the lower surface and begin to dry (Plate 45);
many of these leaves remain attached on the plants
and have a sootcovered appearance. Vost of the plant
foliage can be killed, but fruit is not infected.
Conditions for deveIopment
The pathogen overseasons on old diseased plants or
other hosts, e.y., black nightshade (Solcnum nyrum
L.). 0isease development is favored by high humidity,
long periods of leaf wetness, and by moderate to high
temperatures (27C). Leaf wetness from dew formation
is most effective for disease development; heavy rainfall
may reduce disease severity. Conidia are the major
inoculum and can be disseminated by air currents,
splashing rain, running water, or machinery.
83
Plate 44: Gray to black conidial sporulation occurs predominantly on the
lower leaf surface.
Plate 45: Numerous lesions may coalesce to cover most of the leaf surface.
Leaves roll upward exposing the lower surface and begin to dry.
44
45
84
hanagement
- All crop debris should be destroyed and plowed
under soil after the last harvest.
- Staking and pruning increase air movement and
should reduce disease severity.
- Apply effective fungicides, e.y. 0iphenconazole
(Score

) or 8enomyl+Vancozeb.
- Use tolerant or resistant cultivars when available.
85
GLOSSARY
Acaricides
Pesticides that kill mites. They are also
known as miticides
Adsorbed
The process by which atoms,
molecules, or ions are taken up from
the soil solution or soil atmosphere and
retained on the surfaces of soil solids
or organic matters by chemical or
physical binding. Adsorption occurs in
many natural physical, biological, and
chemical systems.
Ammonia
voIatiIization
Ammonia volatilization refers to the
loss of NH
J
from the soil as a gas to the
atmosphere and is normally associated
with high free NH
J
concentrations
in the soil solution and high soil pH.
Surface applications of ammoniacal
fertilizers or readily decomposable
organic wastes to soils can result
in considerable N loss by NH
J
gas
volatilization, particularly if the soil is
alkaline in nature.
AIgaI bIooms
A sudden, massive increase or
accumulation in the population of
algae in lakes and streams, often
resulting in high turbidity and green
or redcolored water, and commonly
stimulated by nutrient enrichment
with phosphorus and nitrogen. Algal
blooms can adversely affect the health
of people and marine ecosystems
and the viability of local and regional
economies.
86
Antioxidant
A substance or molecule that prevents
or slows down the oxidation of other
molecules. 0xidation produces by
products (free radicals) that can cause
cell damage.
Atrophied
0iminution of a body part, organ or
tissue.
aIanced
fertiIizer
appIication
Application of fertilizers using a
balanced combination of organic and
inorganic sources, and a balanced ratio
among N, P and K nutrients. t sustains
good soil fertility conditions and makes
the nutrient supply more efcient.
asaI
appIication
Applying organic and/or inorganic
fertilizers before sowing or
transplanting of plants. 8asal
applications can be broadcast, applied
in bands, or placed close to the plants.
road-spectrum
pesticide
Nonselective pesticide that could
kill a wide range of species in an
ecosystem.
Canopy
Uppermost foliage cover in a plant or
tree.
Cation exchange
capacity (CEC)
The capacity of soil to hold nutrients
for plant use. Specically, CEC is the
amount of negative charges available
on clay and humus to hold positively
charged cations. Effective cation
exchange capacity (ECEC) is reported
for acid soils (pH5). t is usually
expressed as centimoles of charge per
kilogram of soil (cmol
c
/kg).
87
ChIorophyII
Creen pigment that gives green color
to a plant's leaves, stems, etc. t is
vital for photosynthesis.
ChIorotic
Chlorotic (adjective); chlorosis (noun)
relates a condition in plants showing
discoloration of normally green plant
parts caused by disease, lack of
nutrients, or various air pollutants.
Chlorotic leaves range from light green
through yellow to almost white.
Cocoon A pupal case, usually made up of silk.
Compost
0rganic residues, or a mixture of
organic residues and soil, that have
been mixed, piled, and moistened,
with or without addition of inorganic
fertilizer, and generally allowed to
undergo biological decomposition
until the original organic materials
have been substantially altered or
decomposed. Composting converts
organic constituents, usually wastes,
into humuslike material suitable for
use as a soil amendment or organic
fertilizer.
0enitrication
8iochemical reduction of nitrate or
nitrite to gaseous nitrogen, either as
molecular nitrogen or as an oxide of
nitrogen, by bacterial activity or by
chemical reactions involving nitrite.
88
0esertication
The process of the gradual
transformation of habitable land
into desert. Land in arid, semiarid,
and subhumid areas deteriorates
due to loss of vegetation and soil
moisture. t is usually caused by human
mismanagement of land resources,
with drought and other natural events
exacerbating the effect of human
action.
0essicate 8ecome dried.
0eutonymph
The second nymphal stage in mites.
Vostly, the deutonymph molts into
adult stage.
0iapause
Temporary suspension of development
(physiological dormancy) due to
adverse environmental conditions.
0orsaI
Located at the back or upper surface
of an insect body.
Eutrophication
A condition in an aquatic ecosystem
where high nutrient concentrations
cause algae to bloom and grow rapidly
which leads to a deciency of oxygen
in the water. Algae blooms disrupt the
ecosystem in two ways. First, algae
blocks sunlight that is needed by the
underwater grasses which feed sh
and other animals. Second, when the
algae die and decompose, they use
up oxygen in the water that is needed
by sh and other animals. Human
activities such as agriculture runoff,
urban runoff, and sewage leakages
accelerate these increased nutrient
levels.
89
Exuvia (aIso
exuvium;
pIuraI, exuviae)
Cast skin or shed skin after moulting.
FIageIIum
Hairlike, whiplike, or tinsellike
appendage of a motile cell, bacterium
or zoospore that provides locomotion.
Honey dew
Liquid feces of insects in the order
Homoptera, containing soluble sugars
and amino acids.
InocuIum
Pathogen or its parts, capable of
causing infection when transferred to a
favorable location.
Inorganic
fertiIizers
Fertilizers composed of synthetic
chemicals and/or minerals. Chemical
or inorganic fertilizers that are not
obtained from a source that is or has
been alive.
Instar
0evelopmental stage during the larval
period. The time interval between
two subsequent moulting is known as
stadium. The form of an insect during
any stadium is called as instar.
Leaf mines
Feeding tunnels between epidermal
layers of the leaf.
hesonotum
Upper surface of the mesothorax
(middle of the three segments in the
thorax of an insect).
90
hesophyII
Tissue between the upper and lower
epidermis of a leaf lamina.
hetamorphosis
Change in growth and development of
an insect from hatching to maturity,
involving conspicuous changes in its
body structures.
hidrib Prominent central vein in a leaf.
honocuIture
Practice of cultivating a single crop on
the same piece of land or in a region
continuously
hyceIium
The hypha or mass of hyphae that
make up the body of a fungus.
Nitrate
A compound that contains the
nitrate group (N0
J

, such as a salt
or ester of nitric acid). t is a major
plant N nutrient and component of
inorganic fertilizer. Nitrate ion with
negative charge is not adsorbed by
soil particles, and is therefore the
most likely element to be leached out
into surface water or groundwater
from septic systems, animal feed
lots, agricultural fertilizers, manure,
industrial waste waters, and sanitary
landlls.
Nitrication
8iological oxidation process whereby
ammonia (NH
4
+
) in soil or wastewater
is oxidized to nitrite (N0
2

) and then to
nitrate (N0
J

) by autotrophic bacterial
or chemical reactions. The nitrate ion
can then be used directly by plants or
soil microorganisms or lost from the
crop rooting zone by denitrication,
leaching, or erosion/runoff.
91
Nitrogenous
Chemical compounds (usually organic)
containing nitrogen in combined
forms. Proteins and nitrates are
nitrogenous compounds.
Nymph
Larval stage in certain insect orders
including Hemiptera. Nymphs will
directly develop into adults without
undergoing pupal stage.
Drganic
fertiIizers
Naturallyoccurring organic materials
that contain sufcient plant nutrients
to be of value as fertilizers, (e.g.
manure, green manure, worm
castings, slurry, peat, seaweed, etc.),
or naturally occurring mineral deposits
(e.g. saltpeter, guano). Processed
organic fertilizers include compost,
bone meal, humic acid, amino
acid, brassin and seaweed extracts.
0ecomposing crop residue from prior
years is another source of organic
fertilizer. n addition to increasing
yield and fertilizing plants directly,
organic fertilizers can improve the
biodiversity of soil organisms and
increase soil organic matter to sustain
longterm productivity.
Parasitoid
An organism that spends most of its
lifecycle within a single host insect
for nutrients and protection and
ultimately kills it.
Pathogen
An entity, usually a microorganism,
that can incite disease.
92
Pesticide
resistance
nheritable tolerance to pesticides
among pest populations of a species.
Pesticide
rotation
Alternating among pesticide groups
with different modes of action to
delay the development of resistance
or to mitigate the current level of
resistance. f successive generations of
the pest are not treated with pesticide
compounds having the same mode of
action, resistance development can be
checked.
Pheromone
A chemical signal that elicits a
response in another member of the
same species.
PhIoem
Tissue in vascular plants that carry
organic nutrients, especially sugars,
and amino acids to other parts of the
plant.
Photoperiod
Exposure duration of an organism to
light in a daily cycle.
PoIyphagous
Feeding on wide variety of host plant
species.
Protonymph The rst nymphal stage in mites.
Puparium
(pIuraI: puparia)
The protective case covering the pupa
in true ies (dipterans).
Saprophytic
0rganisms feeding on dead or decaying
organic matter.
93
ScIerotium
(pIuraI:
scIerotia)
A compact mass of hyphae with
or without host tissue, usually
with a darkened rind, and capable
of surviving under unfavorable
environmental conditions.
SkeIetonization
Process of destroying the tissues and
leaving the basic structure or shape (of
the leaves).
SoiI buffering
capacity
The ability of solid phase soil materials
to resist changes in ion concentration
in the solution phase. t includes
pH buffering capacity as well as the
buffering capacity of other ionic and
molecular components. pH buffering
capacity refers to the ability of a soil
to resist large changes in pH when an
acidic or alkaline solution is added to
it.
SoIanaceous Plant species in the family Solanaceae.
Sooty moId
8lack powdery coat on the leaf
surfaces due to the growth of
saprophytic fungi on the excretions
(honey dew) of certain homopteran
insects.
Sporangium
(pIuraI:
sporangia)
A container or case of asexual spores.
n some cases it functions as a single
spore.
SporuIation The process of spore production.
94 94
Starter SoIution
norganic fertilizer solution with very
high NPK concentration (200-240
mg N/plant) applied near plant roots
immediately after transplanting.
The volumes applied each time are
small (about 50 ml) so the solution
can be held near the roots. Starter
solution can tentatively build up high
nutrient gradients in the soil solution
around the soilrhizosphere system.
t provides young transplants with
readily available nutrients before their
root systems are wellestablished,
enhances initial growth of vegetables,
and improves fertilizer use efciency.
Systemic
pesticide
Pesticide that move throughout the
plant system after application.
Tergites
Hardened plates on the upper surface
of thorax and abdomen of an insect.
Thoracic Located in the thorax (chest).
Venation The arrangement of veins in a leaf.
ViruIent
Highly pathogenic; having the capacity
to cause severe disease.
95
Index

8acterial diseases 61
8acterial spot 62
8acterial wilt 64
8acterial spot 62
8acterial wilt 64
8eet armyworm J4
8lack leaf mold (Cercospora leaf mold) 82
C
Common armyworm J1
Crop rotation 1J
0
0ampingoff 70
E
Early blight 72
F
Fertilizers
application tips 21
imbalanced application 7
inadequate nutrient inputs 8
inorganic 6, 8
nutrient use efciency 10
organic 6, 8, 1J
overapplication 6
recommendations 14
Starter Solution 11
96
Fungal diseases
8lack leaf mold (Cercospora leaf mold) 82
0ampingoff 69
Early blight 72
Fusarium wilt 76
Late blight 74
Southern blight 79
Fungicides J
Fusarium wilt 76
C
Ceminiviruses v
Clossary 85
I
ntegrated pest management 50
L
Late blight 74
Leaf miner 42
Lycopene v
N
Nethouses 2
P
Pest management 50
8ehavioral control 52
8iological control 52
Chemical control 54
Cultural control 50
Host plant resistance 52
Vechanical control 52
Pesticides J
97
Pests 2J
8eet armyworm J4
Common armyworm J1
Spider mites 46
Tomato fruit worm 24
Tomato leaf miner 42
Whitey J6
S
Soil fertility management 5, 8
nutrient losses 12
nutrient use efciency 10
Southern blight 79
Spider mites 46
T
Tomato bacterial spot 62
Tomato bacterial wilt 64
Tomato fruit worm 24
Tomato leaf miner 42
Tomato (Solcnum lycoperscum L.)
climatic conditions v
growing medium 2
healthy seedling production 2
nutrition v
wild species v
W
Whitey J6