This textbook is designed to: Explain systems analysis and design using an appealing full-color format, numerous screen

shots and illustrations, and an easy-to-read style that invites students to learn. Introduce project management concepts early in the systems development process, with a new chapter that explains project management tools and techniques. Challenge students with a Question of Ethics mini-case in each chapter that asks them to respond to real-life ethical issues in an IT environment. Provide multi-method coverage, including a comparison of structured, object-oriented, and agile systems development methods. Emphasize the importance of planning, implementing, and managing an effective IT security program. Explain how IT supports business requirements in todays intensely competitive environment, and describe major IT developments and trends. Provide case studies and exercises that promote critical-thinking skills and encourage students to apply their skills and knowledge. Describe a systems analysts job in a typical business organization, and show students how to use various tools and techniques to improve their skills and manage their careers.

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contains 16 learning units in twelve chapters and a fourpart Systems Analysts Toolkit that teaches valuable crossfunctional skills. Each chapter contains the following features to help you get started: Chapter Opening Features
Chapter Introduction Read the Chapter Introduction for a brief overview of the chapter. Chapter Objectives The Chapter Objectives lists the main skills and knowledge you will have when you finish the chapter. Chapter Introduction Case: Mountain View College Bookstore The Mountain View College Bookstore case is a continuing case study that introduces each chapter and provides a real-world overview of the topics that will be covered in the chapter. As you work through the textbook, you will see how the Mountain View IT team discusses the issues, identifies the key points, and creates specific task lists.

Learning Tools within the Chapter: A mini-case Question of ethical issues in an IT environment in each chapter. Case in Point feature provides four embedded minicase opportunities to analyze and apply the skills and concepts you are learning in the chapter. Toolkit Time The Systems Analysts Toolkit explains skills that you can apply at any point in the textbook. Toolkit Time marginal notes remind you about the Toolkit, where to find it, and how it might help you address the issues or material in the chapter. On the Web Learn more about a topic by visiting the suggested Web sites. 3. End-of-Chapter Exercises 4. Additional Support Tools
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To navigate the slide presentation, use the navigation bar on the left OR use your right and left arrow keys.
Move your mouse over the key terms throughout the presentation to see a definition. Click on to view reference figures. For further exploration, links to selected web sites are included. Click under this banner throughout the presentation.

Chapter 1 is the first of three chapters in the systems planning phase. This chapter describes the role of information technology in todays dynamic business environment. In this chapter, you will learn about the development of information systems, systems analysis and design concepts, and various systems development methods. This chapter also describes the role of the information technology department and its people.

Discuss the impact of information technology on business strategy and success Define an information system and describe its components Explain how profiles and models can represent business functions and operations Explain how the Internet has affected business strategies and relationships

Identify various types of information systems and explain who uses them Distinguish between structured analysis, object-oriented analysis, and agile methods Compare the traditional waterfall model with agile methods and models Discuss the role of the information technology department and the systems analysts who work there

Companies use information as a weapon in the battle to increase productivity, deliver quality products and services, maintain customer loyalty, and make sound decisions. In a global economy with intense competition, Information technology can mean the difference between success and failure.

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Information Technology (IT)

Combination of hardware and software products and services that companies use to manage, access, communicate, and share information Firms treat information as a vital asset that must be used effectively, updated constantly, and safeguarded carefully

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The Future of IT

More than ever, business success depends on information technology. IT is driving a new economy, where advances in hardware, software, and connectivity are providing enormous benefits to businesses and individuals around the world.
IT occupations will see robust growth for at least a decade, the greatest need will be for systems analysts, network administrators, data communications analysts, and software engineers

Although economic trends affect IT spending levels, most businesses give IT budgets a relatively high priority, in good times or bad. The reason is simple during periods of growth, companies cannot afford to lag behind the IT curve. Conversely, when the economy slows down, firms often use IT to reduce operating costs and improve efficiency.

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The Role of Systems Analysis and Design

Systems Analysis and Design
Is a Step-by-step process for developing high-quality information systems.

Systems Analyst

An information system combines information technology, people, and data to support business requirements. E.g., information systems handle daily business transactions, improve company productivity, and help managers make sound decisions.
Plan, develop, and maintain information systems

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Who develops Information Systems? Traditionally: o In-house applications (a company develop its own information systems) o Software packages purchased systems from outside vendors. Today:
Internet-based application services Outsourcing Custom solutions from IT consultants Enterprise-wide software strategies

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Who develops Information Systems? How versus What: Regardless of the development method, launching a new information system involves risks as well as benefits. The greatest risk occurs when a company tries to decide how the system will be implemented before determining what the system is supposed to do. Instead of putting the cart before the horse, a company must begin by outlining its business needs and identifying possible IT solutions. Typically, this important work is performed by systems analysts and other IT professionals. Later on, as the system is

developed, a systems analysts role will vary depending on the implementation option selected.

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A system is a set of related components that produces specific results (For example, specialized systems route Internet traffic) A Mission-critical system is one that is vital to a companys operations (e.g., order processing system) Every system requires input data. In an information system, Data consists of basic facts that are the systems raw material

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Information is data that has been transformed into output that is valuable to users Information systems have five key components: hardware, software, data, processes, and people

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Hardware Is every thing in the physical layer of the information system, e.g. servers, workstations,
networks, telecommunications equipment, fiber optic cables, and other technology based infrastructure. Moores Law: In 1965, Gordon Moore, predicted that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit would double about every 24 months.

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2.

control the hardware and produce the desired information or results, consists of system software and application software. System software: manages the hardware components, examples of system software include the operating system, security software, device drivers, and utility programs that handle specific tasks such as data backup and disk management. System software also controls the flow of data, provides data security, and manages network operations. In todays interconnected business world, network software is vitally important.
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Software: Software refers to the programs that

Application software: consists of programs that support day-to-

day business functions and provide users with the information they require, can serve one user or throughout the company. Enterprise applications Examples of company wide applications, e.g., order processing systems. On a smaller scale, individual users increase their productivity with tools such as spreadsheets, word processors, and database management systems.

Includes horizontal and vertical systems.

Horizontal system such as an inventory or payroll application, that Vertical system designed to meet the unique requirements of a specific business or industry, such as medical practice

can be adapted for use in many different types of companies.

When planning an information system, a company must consider how a new system will interface with older systems, which are called Legacy systems.

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3.

Data
Is the raw material that an information system transforms into useful information information system can store data in various locations, called tables By linking the tables, the system can extract specific information

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Processes
Describe the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff members perform to achieve specific results Processes are the building blocks of an information system because they represent actual day-to-day business operations. To build a successful information system, analysts must understand business processes and document them carefully.

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People
People who have an interest in an information system are called Stakeholders. Stakeholders include the management group responsible for the system, the Users (sometimes called end users) inside and outside the company who will interact with the system, and IT staff members, such as systems analysts, programmers, and network administrators who develop and support the system. the success or failure of a system usually depends on whether it meets the needs of its end users.

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IT professionals must understand a companys business operations to design successful systems. Each business situation is different and has unique information systems requirements. For example, a retail store, an Internet auction site have unique information systems requirements. Business Process Modeling Systems analysts use a process called business process modeling to represent a companys operations and information needs. Business process modeling requires a business profile and a series of models that document various business processes.

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Business Profile A business profile is an overview that describes a companys overall functions, processes, organization, products, services, customers, suppliers, competitors, constraints, and future direction. To develop a business profile, a systems analyst investigates a companys products, services, and Internet opportunities. The analyst also studies interactivity among the firms information systems, specialized information needs, and future growth projections. Armed with a business profile, the analyst then creates a series of business models.

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Business Models
A business model is a graphical representation of one or more business processes that a company performs, such as crediting a customer account which makes it easier for managers and systems analysts to understand day-to-day business operations. A business process describes a specific set of transactions, events, tasks, and results. For example, Figure 1-11 shows a business model called HANDLE SALES ORDER. Notice that the model represents an event, three separate business processes, and a result. Complex business operations require a series of linked models to show the overall picture. When companies attempt to simplify operations or reduce costs, a popular strategy is to have managers and systems analysts perform business process reengineering (BPR). ProScis BPR Online Learning Center shown in Figure 1-12 offers comprehensive resources for business process reengineering, including articles, tutorials, and information on reengineering toolkits and templates.
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FIGURE 1-11 A simple business model might consist of an event, three processes, and a result.

FIGURE 1-12 ProScis BPR Online Learning Center offers many resources for business process reengineering.
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New Kinds of Companies

Traditionally, IT companies were identified as product-oriented or serviceoriented. Production-oriented: Product-oriented firms manufactured computers, routers, or the microchips Service-oriented: include resellers and providers of information and various IT services.

Today, those distinctions are much less meaningful. Most successful IT companies offer a mix of products, technical and financial services, consulting, and customer support. Many firms believe that long-term profitability lies in value-added services rather than hardware,

Internet-dependent: The newest company category is the Internet-

dependent firm, often described as a dot-com (.com) company because its primary business depends on the Internet rather than a traditional business channel. Google, Yahoo, and eBay are examples of pure dotcom companies. Brick-and-mortar: are more traditional companies, because they conduct business primarily from physical locations. Today, that distinction no longer exists. Most successful brick-and-mortar firmssuch as Lowes, Target, and Wal-Marthave added Web-based marketing channels to increase sales and serve customers more effectively.

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Internet-based commerce is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) or I-commerce (Internet commerce). E-commerce includes two main sectors: B2C (business-to-consumer) and B2B (business-to-business).

Using the Internet, consumers can go online to purchase an enormous variety of products and services. This new shopping environment allows customers to do research, compare prices and features, check availability, arrange delivery, and choose payment methods in a single convenient session. Many companies, offer incentives for online transactions because Web-based processing costs are lower than traditional methods. B2C commerce is changing traditional business models and creating new ones. The surge in B2C marketing has created strong competition among Web designers to create attractive sites that increase online sales. The B2C trend also means more demand for systems analysts and programmers who can develop Web-based information systems and applications.

B2C (Business-to-Consumer)

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B2B (Business-to-Business)

Although the business-to-consumer (B2C) sector is more familiar to retail customers, the volume of business-to-business (B2B) transactions is many times greater as more firms use advanced technology to improve efficiency and lower their acquisition costs. Online trading marketplaces initially were developed as company-to-company datasharing arrangements called electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI enabled computer-to-computer transfer of data between companies. As B2B volume soared, the development of extensible markup language (XML) enabled companyto-company traffic to migrate to the Internet. XML is a flexible data description language that allows Web-based communication between different hardware and software environments. Because it allows companies to access the global marketplace, B2B is especially important to firms under pressure to reduce costs. B2B enables smaller suppliers to contact large customers, and allows purchasers to obtain instant information about market prices and availability. This popular form of online B2B interaction is called supplier relationship management (SRM). Infor is a software firm that offers SRM solutions designed to reduce supply chain costs.

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Web-Based System Development Internet-based systems development is changing rapidly, as software industry giants compete in market for overall software services, rather than individual products. These services include powerful Webdevelopment environments and software solutions. For example, IBM claims that its WebSphere strategy is best, while Microsoft counters with a broad vision called .NET that redefines that companys approach to Web-based application development. In addition, many firms offer Web services, which are Internetbased support programs that can be executed as an integral part of an information system. For example, a real estate brokerage Web site might offer instant mortgage calculations, which are performed by a Web service provided by a third-party company.

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Web-Based System Development

Internet-based systems involve various hardware and software designs, but a simple model is a series of Web pages that provides a user interface, which communicates with one or more levels of data management software and a Web-based database server. As companies build more Internet-based systems, career opportunities will expand for IT professionals In the e-commerce battles, the real winners will be online consumers, who will have access to more information, better choices.
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In past, IT managers divided systems into categories based on the user group the system served. Categories and users included
Office systems (administrative staff), Operational systems (operational personnel), Decision support systems (middle-managers and knowledge workers) Executive information systems (top managers).

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Today, traditional labels no longer apply. For example, all employees, including top managers, use office productivity systems. Similarly, operational users often require decision support systems. As business changes, information use also changes in most companies

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Today, it makes more sense to identify a system by its functions and features, rather than by its users, A new set of system definitions includes:
Enterprise computing systems Transaction processing systems Business support systems Knowledge management systems User productivity systems

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1.

information systems that Support company-wide operations and data management requirements, e.g., inventory control system,

Enterprise computing systems

production control systems, and Hotels reservation system.

The main objective of enterprise computing is to integrate a companys primary functions (such as production, sales, services, inventory control, and accounting) to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and help managers make key decisions. Enterprise computing also improves data security and reliability by imposing a company-wide framework for data access and storage. In many large companies, applications called enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems provide cost-effective support for users

and managers throughout the company, For example, a car rental company can use ERP to forecast customer demand. Because of its growth and potential, many hardware and software vendors target the enterprise computing market and offer a wide array of products and services.

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2.

Transaction processing (TP) systems: Systems that process data generated by day-to-day business operations by performing a series of tasks whenever a specific transaction occurs, e.g., customer order processing (figure 1.17), and warranty claim processing. Involve large amounts of data and are missioncritical systems because the enterprise cannot function without them. Efficient because they process a set of transactionrelated commands as a group rather than individually. To protect data integrity, TP systems ensure that if any single element of a transaction fails, the system does not process the rest of the transaction.

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Transaction processing systems

Figure 1-17 A single sales transaction consists of six separate tasks, which the TP system processes as a group

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3.

Provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company Can analyze transactional data, generate information needed to manage and control business processes, and provide information that leads to better decision-making. The earliest business computer systems replaced manual tasks, and were called Management Information Systems (MIS) because managers were the primary users. Today, employees at all levels need information to perform their jobs.

Business support systems

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Business support systems

A business support system can work hand in hand with a TP system. For example, when a company sells merchandise to a customer, a TP system records the sale, updates the customers balance, and makes a deduction from inventory. A related business support system highlights slow- or fastmoving items, customers with past due balances, and inventory levels that need adjustment. To compete effectively, firms must collect production, sales, and shipping data and update the company-wide business support system immediately. The newest development in data acquisition is called Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology, which uses high-frequency radio waves to track physical objects, such as the item shown in Figure 1-18.
FIGURE 1-18 Retailers use RFID tags for security and inventory control

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Business support systems

An important feature of a business support system is decision support capability. Decision support helps users make decisions by creating a computer model and applying a set of variables. For example, a retailer might use what-if analysis to determine the price it must charge to increase profits by a specific amount while volume and costs remain unchanged.

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4.

Knowledge management systems

Called expert systems because they simulate human reasoning by combining a knowledge base and inference rules that determine how the knowledge is applied. Consists of a large database that allows users to find information by entering keywords (e.g., Fig 1.19). uses inference rules, which are logical rules that identify data patterns and relationships. Many knowledge management systems use technique called fuzzy logic, the results of a fuzzy logic search will display in priority order, with the most relevant results at the top of the list.

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Knowledge management systems

Figure 1-19 The interactive 3Com Knowledgebase allows users to search for solutions.

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5.

User productivity systems

Companies provide employees at all levels with technology that improves productivity. Examples of user productivity systems include e-mail, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, presentation graphics, company intranets, and Internet access. User productivity systems also include groupware. Groupware programs run on a company intranet and enable users to share data, collaborate on projects, and work in teams. With computers performing most of the repetitive work, managers realized that office personnel could handle tasks that required more judgment, decision-making, and access to information.

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Information systems integration

Most large companies require systems that combine transaction processing, business support, knowledge management, and user productivity features For example, suppose an international customer has a problem with a product and makes a warranty claim. A customer service representative enters the claim into a TP system. The transaction updates two other systems: a knowledge management system that tracks product problems and warranty activity, and a quality control system with decision support capabilities. A quality control engineer uses what-if analysis to determine if it would be advantageous to make product design changes to reduce warranty claims. In this example, a TP system is integrated with a knowledge management system and a business support system with decision support features.
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A systems analyst must understand the companys organizational model to recognize who is responsible for specific processes and decisions and to be aware of what information is required by whom A typical organizational model identifies business functions and organizational levels, as shown in Figure 1-20.

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Figure 1-20
A typical organizational model identifies business functions and organizational levels.

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Top managers: Top managers develop long-range plans, called strategic plans, which define the companys overall mission and goals. such as How much should the company invest in information technology? or Should the company build new factories or contract out the production functions?.

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Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers

Middle managers provide direction, necessary resources, and performance feedback to supervisors and team leaders. Because they focus on a somewhat shorter time frame, middle managers need more detailed information than top managers, but somewhat less than supervisors who oversee day-to-day operations. For example, a middle manager might review a weekly sales summary for a three-state area, whereas a local sales team leader would need a daily report on customer sales at a single location. Knowledge workers include professional staff members such as systems analysts, programmers, accountants, researchers, trainers, and human resource specialists, Knowledge workers also use business support systems, knowledge management systems, and user productivity systems. Knowledge workers provide support for the organizations basic functions.

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Supervisors, often called team leaders, oversee operational employees and carry out day-to-day functions. Like other managers, supervisors and team leaders need decision support information, knowledge management systems, and user productivity systems to carry out their responsibilities.

Supervisors and Team Leaders

Operational Employees

Operational employees include users who rely on TP systems to enter and receive data they need to perform their jobs. In many companies, operational users also need information to handle tasks and make decisions that were assigned previously to supervisors. This trend, called empowerment, gives employees more responsibility and accountability, empowerment improves employee motivation and increases customer satisfaction.
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In addition to understanding business operations, Systems analysts must know how to use a variety of techniques such as modeling, prototyping, and computer-aided systems engineering tools to plan, design, and implement information systems. Systems analysts work with these tools in a team environment , where input from users, managers, and IT staff contributes to the system design.

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1.

Modeling

Modeling produces a graphical representation of a concept or process that systems developers can analyze, test, and modify. A systems analyst can describe and simplify an information system by using a set of business, data, object, network, and process models. business model, or requirements model, describes the information that a system must provide. data model describes data structures and design. object model describes objects, which combine data and processes. network model describes the design and protocols of telecommunications links. process model describes the logic that programmers use to write code modules. System developers often use charting tools such as Microsoft Visio to display business-related models. Visio is a popular tool that systems analysts can use to create business process diagrams, flowcharts, organization charts, network diagrams, floor plans, project timelines, and work flow diagrams. Modeling involves various techniques, including data flow diagrams and entity relationship diagrams, and unified modeling language.

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2.

Prototyping A prototype is an early working version of an information system. Systems analysts construct and study information system prototypes. A prototype can serve as an initial model that is used:
as a benchmark to evaluate the finished system, or the prototype itself can develop into the final version of the system. Either way, prototyping speeds up the development process significantly.

A possible disadvantage of prototyping is that important decisions might be made too early, before business or IT issues are understood thoroughly. A prototype based on careful fact-finding and modeling techniques, however, can be an extremely valuable tool.
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Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) Tools Also called computer-aided software engineering is a technique that uses powerful software, called CASE tools to develop and maintain information systems, it helps systems analysts create business profiles. build business models. document complex processes. After developing a model, many CASE tools can generate program code, which speeds the implementation process.
Visible Systems Corporation, is a leading vendor of CASE tools.

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Many options exist for developing information systems. the most popular alternatives are structured analysis, which is a traditional method that still is widely used, and object-oriented analysis (O-O), which is a newer approach that many analysts prefer, and agile methods, also called adaptive methods which include the latest trends in software development. Figure 1-23 (book) provides an overview of the three methods.

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System developers may mix and match methods of these approaches to gain a better perspective. In addition to these three main development methods, some organizations choose to develop their own inhouse approaches or use techniques offered by software suppliers, CASE tool vendors, or consultants. Many alternatives exist, and most IT experts agree that no one system development method is best in all cases. The important thing for a systems analyst is to understand the various methods and the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Regardless of the development strategy, People, tasks, timetables, and costs must be managed efficiently Project management is the process of planning, scheduling, monitoring, controlling, and reporting upon the development of an information system.

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Structured Analysis:

is a traditional systems development technique that is timetested and easy to understand. Structured analysis uses a series of phases, called the systems development life cycle (SDLC), to plan, analyze, design, implement, and support an information system. is based on an overall plan, similar to a blueprint for constructing a building, so it is called a predictive approach. Structured analysis uses a set of process models to describe a system graphically. Because it focuses on processes that transform data into useful information, structured analysis is called a process-centered technique. In addition to modeling the processes, structured analysis also addresses data organization and structure, relational database design, and user interface issues.

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Structured Analysis: Process modeling identifies: the data flowing into a process, the business rules that transform the data, and the resulting output data flow.
FIGURE 1-24 is a Visible Analyst screen showing a simple process model for a school registration system. The REGISTER STUDENTS process accepts input data from two sources and transforms it into output data.

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Structured Analysis:
Structured analysis uses the SDLC to plan and manage the systems development process. The SDLC describes activities and functions that all systems developers perform, regardless of which approach they use. In the waterfall model, the result of each phase is called a deliverable, or end product, which flows into the next phase. A disadvantage in the built-in structure of the SDLC, is that the waterfall model does not emphasize interactivity among the phases. This criticism can be valid if the SDLC phases are followed too rigidly. However, adjacent phases usually interact, as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 1-25, and interaction among several phases is not uncommon. Other analysts regard the waterfall model as a two-way water flow model, with emphasis on iteration and user input. Used in this manner, the traditional model is not as different from agile methods as it might appear to be.

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Structured Analysis:

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Structured Analysis
The SDLC model usually includes five steps
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Systems Systems Systems Systems Systems planning analysis design implementation support and security

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Structured Analysis 1. Systems Planning The systems planning phase usually begins with a formal request to the IT department, called a systems request, which describes problems or desired changes in an information system or a business process. When managers and users develop their business plans, they usually include IT requirements that generate systems requests. The request can be very significant (e.g. new information system) or relatively minor (e.g. a new feature or a change to the user interface).
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Structured Analysis 1. Systems Planning The purpose of this phase is to perform a preliminary investigation to evaluate an IT-related business opportunity or problem. A key part of the preliminary investigation is a feasibility study that reviews anticipated costs and benefits and recommends a course of action based on operational, technical, economic, and time factors. Analyst first step is to determine whether it makes sense to launch a preliminary investigation at all. Often needs to learn more about business operations before he can reach a conclusion. After an investigation, you might find that the information system functions properly, but users need more training. In some situations, you might recommend a business process review, rather than an IT solution. In other cases, you might conclude that a full-scale systems review is necessary. If the development process continues, the next step is the systems analysis phase.
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Structured Analysis 2. Systems Analysis The purpose of the systems analysis phase is to build a logical model of the new system. The first step is requirements modeling, where you investigate business processes and document what the new system must do to satisfy users. Requirements modeling continues the investigation that began during the systems planning phase. To understand the system, you perform fact-finding using techniques such as interviews, surveys, document review, observation, and sampling. You use the fact-finding results to build business models, data and process models, and object models. The deliverable for the systems analysis phase is the system requirements document. The system requirements document describes; management and user requirements, costs and benefits, and outlines alternative development strategies.
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Structured Analysis 3. Systems Design The purpose of the systems design phase is to create a physical model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system. At this stage, you design the user interface. identify necessary outputs, inputs, and processes. design internal and external controls, including computer-based and manual features to guarantee that the system will be reliable, accurate, maintainable, and secure. determine the application architecture, which programmers will use to transform the logical design into program modules and code. The deliverable for this phase is the system design specification, which is presented to management and users for review and approval. Management and user involvement is critical to avoid any misunderstanding about what the new system will do, how it will do it, and what it will cost.
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Structured Analysis 4. Systems Implementation During the systems implementation phase, the new system is constructed. Whether the developers use structured analysis or O-O methods, the procedure is the same programs are written, tested, and documented, and the system is installed. If the system was purchased as a package, systems analysts configure the software and perform any necessary modifications. The objective of the systems implementation phase is to deliver a completely functioning and documented information system. Final preparations include converting data to the new systems files, training users, and performing the actual transition to the new system. The systems implementation phase also includes an assessment, called a systems evaluation, to determine whether the system operates properly and if costs and benefits are within expectations.
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Structured Analysis 5. Systems Support and Security During this phase, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system. Maintenance changes correct errors and adapt to changes in the environment, such as new tax rates. Enhancements provide new features and benefits. A well-designed system must be secure, reliable, maintainable, and scalable. A scalable design can expand to meet new business requirements and volumes. Information systems development is always a work in progress. Business processes change rapidly, and most information systems need to be updated significantly or replaced after several years of operation.

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Object-oriented Analysis Whereas structured analysis treats processes and data as separate components, object-oriented analysis combines data and the processes that act on the data into things called objects. Systems analysts use O-O to model real-world business processes and operations. The result is a set of software objects that represent actual people, things, transactions, and events. Using an O-O programming language, a programmer then writes the code that creates the objects. An object is a member of a class, which is a collection of similar objects. Objects have characteristics called properties, which the object inherits from its class or possesses on its own (Fig 1-26).
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Object-oriented Analysis
FIGURE 1-26 The PERSON class includes INSTRUCTOR and STUDENT objects, which have their own properties and inherited properties.

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Object-Oriented Anaylsis: In O-O design, built-in processes called methods can change an objects properties. For example, in a Web-based catalog store, an ORDER object might have a property called STATUS that changes when a CUSTOMER object clicks to place, confirm, or cancel the order. One object can send information to another object by using a message; A message requests specific behavior or information from another object. For example, an ORDER object might send a message to a CUSTOMER object that requests a shipping address. When it receives the message, the CUSTOMER object supplies the information. The ORDER object has the capability to send the message, and the CUSTOMER object knows what actions to perform when it receives the message. O-O analysis uses object models to represent data and behavior, and to show how objects affect other objects. By describing the objects and methods needed to support a business operation, a system developer can design reusable components that speed up system implementation and reduce development cost.

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Object-Oriented Anaylsis Object-oriented methods usually follow a series of analysis and design phases that are similar but less agreed upon -to the SDLC. In an O-O model, the phases tend to be more interactive. Figure 1-27 shows a system development model where planning, analysis, and design tasks interact continuously to produce prototypes that can be tested and implemented. The result is an interactive model that can accurately depict real-world business processes. O-O methodology is popular because it provides an easy transition to O-O programming languages.
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FIGURE 1-27 In this model, planning, analysis, and design tasks interact continuously. Interactive models often are used with O-O development methods.
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Agile Methods structured analysis is a traditional approach, and agile methods are the newest development. Structured analysis builds an overall plan for the information system, just as a contractor might use a blueprint for constructing a building. Agile methods, in contrast, attempt to develop a system incrementally, by building a series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements. As the agile process continues, developers revise earlier versions into the final product. An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and each incremental step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps. Iterative development is a new notion to software development, but can be traced back about 20 years to Japanese auto firms that were able to boost productivity by using a more flexible manufacturing system, where team-based effort and short-term milestones helped keep quality up and costs down. Because it is stresses a team-based culture, the agile community has published the Agile Manifesto, which is the set of principles shown in Figure 1-29. 73

Agile Methods

FIGURE 1-29 The Agile Manifesto is a set of team-based principles published by the agile community.

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Agile Methods Agile methods typically use a spiral model, which represents a series of iterations, or revisions, based on user feedback, as shown in Figure 1-30. As the process continues, the final product gradually evolves. An agile approach requires intense interactivity between developers and individual users, and does not begin with an overall objective. Instead, the agile process determines the end result. the spiral model believe that this approach reduces risks and speeds up software development.

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Agile Methods

FIGURE 1-30 Agile methods typically use a spiral model, which represents a series of iterations, or versions, based on user feedback.

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Agile Methods Spiral models were suggested in the1990s by Barry Boehm. He stated that each iteration, or phase, of the model must have a specific goal that is accepted, rejected, or changed by the user, or client. Thus, each iteration produces feedback and enhancements, which enable the team to reach the overall project goal. Typically, each iteration in a spiral model includes planning, risk analysis, engineering, and evaluation, as shown in the table in Figure 1-31. The repeated iterations produce a series of prototypes, which evolve into the finished system. Notice that these phases resemble SDLC tasks, which also can be iterative.

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Agile Methods

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Agile Methods Numerous other adaptive variations and related methods exist. Two examples are Scrum and Extreme Programming (XP). Scrum, which actually is a rugby term, is a popular process with agile developers, and refers to a powerful effort to achieve short-term goals. In Scrum, team members play specific roles and interact in intense sessions. Phases overlap and the entire process is performed by one cross-functional team. The process was more like rugby, where the whole team goes downfield while passing the ball back and forth, compared with a relay race, where only one team member performs at a time.

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Agile Methods Extreme Programming (XP) is another adaptive process that focuses on forceful interaction between developers and users to define and achieve project goals. XP, like agile methods generally, stresses certain key values, such as communication, simplicity, feedback, and respect among team members. When properly implemented, its proponents believe that Extreme Programming can speed up development, reduce costs, and improve software quality.

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Agile Methods Analysts should recognize that these approaches have advantages and disadvantages. By their nature, agile methods can allow developers to be much more flexible and responsive, but can be riskier than more traditional methods. For example, without a detailed set of system requirements, certain features requested by some users might not be consistent with the companys larger game plan. Other potential disadvantages of agile methods can include weak documentation, blurred lines of accountability, and too little emphasis on the larger business picture. Also, unless properly implemented, a long series of iterations might actually add to project cost and development time. The bottom line is that systems analysts should understand the pros and cons of any approach before selecting a development method for a specific project.

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Other Development Methods

Although agile methods are relatively new, IT departments have long sought to avoid systems that were developed without sufficient input from users. Over time, many companies discovered that systems development teams composed of IT staff, users, and managers could complete their work more rapidly and produce better results. Two methodologies became popular: joint application development (JAD) and rapid application development (RAD). Both JAD and RAD use teams composed of users, managers, and IT staff. The difference is that JAD focuses on team-based fact-finding, which is only one phase of the development process, whereas RAD is more like a compressed version of the entire process. you might encounter other systems development techniques, systems analyst can choose from an entire industry of IT software companies and consulting firms. For example, a popular approach offered by the Rational group at IBM is called the Rational Unified Process (RUP), RUP offers a flexible, iterative process for managing software development projects that can minimize risk, ensure predictable results, and deliver high-quality software on time.

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Other Development Methods

Another option is what Microsoft calls Microsoft Solutions Framework (MSF), which documents the experience of its own software development teams. Although the Microsoft process differs from the SDLC phase-oriented approach, MSF developers perform the same kind of planning, ask the same kinds of factfinding questions, deal with the same kinds of design and implementation issues, and resolve the same kinds of problems. Using this approach, MSF examines a broader business and organizational context that surrounds the development of an information system. Companies often choose to follow their own methodology. Using CASE tools, an IT team can apply a variety of techniques rather than being bound to a single methodology, many CASE tools offer a complete set of analysis and modeling tools that support various methods and strategies. Regardless of the development model, it will be necessary to manage people, tasks, timetables, and expenses by using various project management tools and techniques.
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systems analyst, must develop his own style and techniques. Although each project is different, he should consider some basic guidelines as he build an information system.

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Develop a project plan Prepare an overall project plan and stick to it. If you use the SDLC as a framework for systems development, complete the phases in sequence. If you use an O-O methodology, follow a logical series of steps as you define the components. If you use agile methods, set the ground rules and be sure they are understood clearly.

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Involve users and listen carefully to them Ensure that users are involved in the development process, especially when identifying and modeling system requirements. Modeling and prototyping can help you understand user needs and develop a better system.

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Use project management tools to identify tasks and milestones: Regardless of the development methodology, the systems analyst must keep the project on track and avoid surprises. Create a reasonable number of checkpoints . An example of a checkpoint might be the completion of interviews conducted during a preliminary investigation. Microsoft Project 2007 help you define tasks, manage resources, monitor progress, and create reports on systems development projects
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Develop Accurate Cost and Benefit Information Provide accurate and reliable cost and benefit information. Managers need to know the cost of developing and operating a system. At the start of each phase, provide specific estimates, and update these as necessary. 5. Remain Flexible Be flexible within the framework of your plan. Systems development is a dynamic process, and overlap often exists between the phases of systems planning, analysis, design, and implementation. The ability to overlap phases is especially important when you are working on a system that must be developed rapidly.
4.

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The information technology (IT) department develops and maintains a companys information systems. The structure of the IT department varies among companies. Figure 1-34 shows a typical IT organization in a company that has networked PCs, enterprise-wide databases, centralized processing, and Web-based operations. The IT group provides technical support, which includes six main functions: application development, systems support and security, user support, database administration, network administration, and Web support. These functions overlap considerably and often have different names in different companies

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Application Development Traditionally, IT departments had an application development group composed of systems analysts and programmers who handled information system design, development, and implementation. Today, user involvement is seen as critical at all stages. The IT departments had an application development group typically provides leadership and overall guidance, but the systems themselves are developed by teams consisting of users, managers, and IT staff members.
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Systems Support and Security provides vital protection and maintenance services for system hardware and software, including enterprise computing systems, networks, transaction processing systems, and corporate IT infrastructure. implements and monitors physical and electronic security hardware, software, and procedures. also installs and supports operating systems, telecommunications software, and centralized database management systems. provide technical assistance to other groups in the IT department. If a site has a large number of remote clients, the systems support group often includes a deployment team that installs and configures the workstations.

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User Support User support provides users with technical information, training, and productivity support. The user support function usually is called a help desk or information center (IC). A help desks staff trains users and managers on application software such as e-mail, word processors, spreadsheets, and graphics packages. User support specialists answer questions, troubleshoot problems, and serve as a clearinghouse for user problems and solutions. In many companies, the user support team also installs and configures software applications that are used within the organization. Although user support specialists coordinate with other technical support areas, their primary focus is user productivity and support for user business processes.
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Database Administration Database administration involves database design, management, security, backup, and user access. 5. Network Administration Includes hardware and software maintenance, support, and security, In addition to controlling user access, network administrators install, configure, manage, monitor, and maintain network applications.
4.
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Web Support
Web support specialists, often called webmasters, support a companys Internet and intranet operations. Web support involves design and construction of Web pages, monitoring traffic, managing hardware and software, and linking Web-based applications to the companys existing information systems.

7.

Quality Assurance (QA)

Reviews and tests all applications and systems changes to verify specifications and software quality standards Is a separate unit that reports directly to IT management

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CASE IN POINT 1.3: WHAT SHOULD LISA DO?

P 28

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A systems analyst investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates, and maintains a companys information systems On large projects, the analyst works as a member of an IT department team Smaller companies often use consultants to perform systems analysis work on an as-needed basis Most companies assign systems analysts to the IT department, but analysts also can report to a specific user area such as marketing, sales, or accounting. As a member of a functional team, an analyst is better able to understand the needs of that group and how information systems support the departments mission.

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Responsibilities Analysts help translate business requirements into IT projects: When assigned to a systems development team, an analyst might help document business profiles, review business processes, select hardware and software packages, design information systems, train users, and plan ecommerce Web sites. A systems analyst plans projects, develops schedules, and estimates costs.

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Required Skills and Background

Solid technical knowledge, strong oral and written communication skills and analytic ability, and an understanding of business operations and processes. A systems analyst needs good interpersonal skills to interact with people at all levels
Often an analyst must lead an IT development team. As a team leader, an analyst plans, estimates, and manages the project, and uses leadership and team-building skills to coach and motivate team members.

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Certification Many Hardware and software companies offer certification for IT professionals. Certification verifies that an individual demonstrated a certain level of knowledge and skill on a standardized test.

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Career Opportunities The demand for systems analysts is expected to remain strong. Companies will need systems analysts to apply new information technology. With an understanding of technical and business issues, a systems analyst has an unlimited horizon.

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Career Opportunities

Job titles: First, do not rely on job titles alone. Some positions are called systems analysts, but involve only programming or technical support. In other cases, systems analyst responsibilities are found in positions titled computer specialist, programmer, programmer/analyst, systems designer, software engineer, and various others. Company organization: Find out all you can about the company and where the IT department fits in the organization chart. Company size: If you like more variety, a smaller firm might suit you best. If you want to specialize, however, then consider a larger company with stateof-the-art systems.

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Career Opportunities Corporate culture In addition to having goals, methods, and information systems requirements, every firm has an underlying corporate culture. A corporate culture is the set of beliefs, rules, traditions, values, and attitudes that define a company and influence its way of doing business. To be successful, a systems analyst must understand the corporate culture and how it affects the way information is managed. Salary, location, and future growth Finally, consider salary, location, and the companys prospects for future growth and success.
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IT refers to the combination of hardware and software resources that companies use to manage, access, communicate, and share information The essential components of an information system are hardware, software, data, processes, and people Most companies offer a mix of products, technical and financial services, consulting, and customer support
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Information systems are identified as enterprise computing systems, transactional processing or operational systems, business support systems, knowledge management systems, or user productivity systems Organization structure includes top managers, middle managers and knowledge workers, supervisors and team leaders

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Systems analysts use modeling, prototyping, and computer aided systems engineering (CASE) tools Three popular system development approaches are structured analysis, objectoriented analysis (O-O), and agile methods, also called adaptive methods

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Regardless of the development strategy, people, tasks, timetables, and cost must be managed effectively using project management tools The IT department develops, maintains and operates a companys information systems

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Systems analysts need a combination of technical and business knowledge, analytical ability, and communication skills Systems analysts need to consider salary, location, and future growth potential when making a career decision

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What is the role of a systems analysis and design?

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What is the role of a systems analysis and design?

Systems analysis and design is a step-by-step process for developing high-quailty information systems.

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What are the five key components of information systems?

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What are the five key components of information systems?

Hardware Software Data Processes People

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How are business information systems identified?

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How are business information systems identified?

Functions and features

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True/False: WebSphere is a strategy maintained and managed by Microsoft.

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True/False: WebSphere is a strategy maintained and managed by Microsoft.

False

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SDLC is an example of a ________ method, while Extreme Programming is an example of an __________ method.

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SDLC is an example of a structured analysis method, while Extreme Programming is an example of an agile approach.

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CASE tools are: a) an object oriented methodology b) techniques or tools to help plan and design information systems c) team-based fact finding techniques

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CASE tools are: a) an object oriented methodology b) techniques or tools to help plan and design information systems c) team-based fact finding techniques

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Objects, classes, and methods are all terms used in structured/object oriented methodologies

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Objects, classes, and methods are all terms used in object oriented methodologies

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What are the phases of the systems development life cycle?

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What are the phases of the systems development life cycle?

Systems Systems Systems Systems Systems planning analysis design implementation support and security

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List at least three of the six functions of a typical IT department

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List at least three of the six functions of a typical IT department

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Application development Systems support User support Database administration Network administration Web support

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True/False: Certification is an important credential that is valued by companies.

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True/False: Certification is a professional credential that is valued by companies.

True

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Systems Analysis & Design

8th Edition