Digital Electronics

Lecture 1 (Overview)

Syllabus

Introduction to Digital Systems, Number System, Binary Codes and Boolean Algebra Digital systems, Importance, Analog vs. digital world; Conversion of bases, Representation of negative numbers, 9s and 1s complement, 10s and 2s complement, Arithmetic using rs complement; Hexadecimal code, weighted codes BCD,BCD addition, Excess-3 code, Gray code and Alphanumeric code; Logic gates and Boolean algebra Boolean Function Representation and Minimization Techniques Standard and canonical representation of Boolean Functions, Two level implementation and minimization of Boolean expressions using Karnaugh Map, QuineMcCluskey method

Syllabus

Combinational Logic Circuitsand Their Applications Arithmetic Logic modules- Half adder, Full adder, Half subtractor, Full subtractor , Full adder using half adder, Decoders and Encoders, Multiplexers, Demultiplexers; Design examples; Look ahead carry adder, BCD adder, Parallel adder/subtractor, Magnitude comparator Sequential Logic Circuits and Their Applications Latches and flip-flops: SR, JK, Master slave JK, T and D; Excitation tables, Conversion of flip-flops; Synchronous and asynchronous counters, Design of counters using flip- flops, Registers, Shift registers, Counters using shift registers; State diagram design, Analysis of sequential circuits using flip-flops; State machine design approachFSM of sequential circuits (Moore and Mealy machines); Applications and design examples.

Syllabus

Programmable Logic Devices PLAs, PALs and their applications Introduction to HDL Simulation HDL concepts, Simulation using ModelSim, Types of modeling- Data flow, Behavioral and Structural; Combinational and sequential circuit examples Digital Logic Families Parameters of Logic Families. Introduction to logic Families: DTL, RTL, TTL, CMOS.

Books recommended

M. Morris Mano, Digital Design, 3rd Edition, PHI, 2002. M. Morris Mano, Digital Logic and Computer Design, PHI, 2003. Ronald J. Tocci , Neal S. Widmar and Gregory L. Moss, Digital Systems Principles and Applications, 10th Edition, Pearson Education, 2009 J.Bhaskar, A VHDL Primer, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, 2000.

Analog Signals

Time-varying signals Take any value across a continuous range of voltage, current or whatever metric Analog electronics represents information as a continuously variable voltage v (t)= A sin (wt+ ) has information A, w,

Fig.1. Analog Signal

Digital Signals

Digital electronics represents information as a set of finite values. or Digital electronics represents information as a sequence of discrete voltage levels if there are 2 levels we call this binary information

Fig.2. Digital Signal

Analog versus Digital

Analog Voltage meter Digital Voltage meter

103.5

About 100

Analog offers Continuous Spectrum Digital offer distinct Steps

Analog Spectrum

Digital Spectrum

Analog has Ambiguity Digital has only one interpretation

Analog Clock Digital Clock

1:56 pm
1:56 About 2:00

1:56
1:50

Why Digital?

Reproducibility of results Ease of design: digital design is logical (logical design) Flexibility and Functionality Programmability Fast Economical Steadily Advancing Technology

Electronic Implementation of Logic

It is common to use positive logic implementation: TRUE (1) 5 Volts FALSE (0) 0 Volts If we measure the voltage at a point in a circuit, we can say whether the logical value at that point is TRUE or FALSE. It is common to use Logic 1 for TRUE and Logic 0 for FALSE.

Number Systems

To talk about binary data, we must first talk about number systems

The decimal number system (base 10) you should be familiar with! Positional number system

Positional Notation

Value of number is determined by multiplying each digit by a weight and then summing.

The weight of each digit is a POWER of the BASE and is determined by position.

Example 1

A Decimal Number such as 1234

Represent a quantity equal to one thousand Plus two hundred Plus 3 tens Plus 4 units

Thousands, hundreds etc. are the powers of 10 implied by the position of the coefficients
To be more exact 1234 should be written as 1 * 103 + 2 * 102 + 3 * 101 + 4 * 100

In general, a number with decimal point is represented by a series of coefficients as follows ..a5a4a3a2a1a0 . a-1a-2a-3.

The coefficient aj are one of the ten digits (0-9)

The subscript value j give the place value and hence power of 10 by which the coefficient must be multiplied.

The decimal number system (base 10) you should be familiar with!

A digit in base 10 ranges from 0 to 9. A digit in base 2 ranges from 0 to 1 (binary number system). A digit in base 2 is also called a bit. A digit in base R can range from 0 to R-1 A digit in Base 16 can range from 0 to 16-1 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F). Use letters A-F to represent values 10 to 15. Base 16 is also called Hexadecimal or just Hex.

Base 10, Base 2, Base 16

953.7810 = 9 x 102 + 5 x 101 + 3 x 100 + 7 x 10-1 + 8 x 10-2 = 900 + 50 + 3 + .7 + .08 = 953.78 1011.112 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 + 1x2-1 + 1x2-2 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 = 11.75 A2F16 = 10x162 + 2x161 + 15x160 = 10 x 256 + 2 x 16 + 15 x 1 = 2560 + 32 + 15 = 2607

Conversion of Any Base to Decimal

Converting from ANY base to decimal is done by multiplying each digit by its weight and summing.

Binary to Decimal

1011.112 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 + 1x2-1 + 1x2-2 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 = 11.75

Hex to Decimal

A2F16 = 10x162 + 2x161 + 15x160 = 10 x 256 + 2 x 16 + 15 x 1 = 2560 + 32 + 15 = 2607

Conversion of Decimal Integer To Any Base

Divide Number N by base R until quotient is 0. Remainder at EACH step is a digit in base R, from Least Significant digit to Most significant digit.

Conversion of Decimal Integer To ANY Base Example

Convert 53 to binary 53/2 = 26/2 = 13/2 = 6 /2 = 3/2 = 1/2 = 26, 13, 6 , 3, 1, 0, rem = 1 rem = 0 rem = 1 rem = 0 rem = 1 rem = 1 Least Significant Digit

Most Significant Digit

5310 = 1101012 = 1x25 + 1x24 + 0x23 + 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20 = 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 53

Conversion of Decimal fraction To Any Base Example

Decimal fraction to Binary It is accomplished by a method similar to that used for integers.

Multiplication is used instead of division Integers are accumulated instead of remainders

Example 1

Convert (0.6875)10 into binary

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.6875 * 0.3750 * 0.7500 * 0.5000 *

2 2 2 2

= = = =

1 0 1 1

+ + + +

0.3750 0.7500 0.5000 0.0000

a-1= a-2= a-3= a-4=

1 0 1 1

Answer: (0.6875)10

= ( 0.a-1a-2a-3a-4)2= (0.1011)2

To Convert a decimal fraction to a number expressed in base r , a similar procedure is used.

Multiplication by r instead of 2
The coefficient found from the integers may range in values from 0 to r-1 instead of 0 and 1.

Example 2

Convert (0.513)10 into octal

8 8 8 8 8 8 Integer = 4 = 0 = 6 = 5 = 1 = 7 + + + + + + Fraction 0.104 0.832 0.656 0.248 0.984 0.872 Coefficient a-1= 4 a-2= 0 a-3= 6 a-4= 5 a-4= 1 a-4= 7

0.513 * 0.104 * 0.832 * 0.656 * 0.248 * 0.984 *

Answer: (0.513)10

= ( 0.a-1a-2a-3a-4a-5a-6.) 8 = ( 0.406517)8

Direct conversion from binary to octal

Binary numbers can be converted into equivalent octal numbers by making groups of three bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for integer part of the number Then replacing each group of three bits by its octal representation.
For fractional part, the groupings of three bits are made starting from the binary point. If last group does not have 3 bits, then pad with zeros

Octal equivalent of 3 bit binary Number

Octal Digits to binary: 08 = 0002 18 = 0012 28 = 0102 38 = 0112 48 = 1002 58 = 1012 68 = 1102 78 = 1112

Example: Convert (011001110001)2 into octal

Form the group of 3 bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB
011 001 110 001

Write the octal equivalent of group of 3 bit binary number at their respective places
3161 (011001110001)2 = ( 3161 )8

Example: Convert (1001110001.100)2 into octal

Grouping of 3-bits (LSB To MSB) for integer part from binary point for fractional part
001 001 110 001 . 100 Padded with a zeros

Write the octal equivalent of group of 3 bit binary number at their respective places 1161.4

( 001 001 110 001 . 100 )2 = ( 1 1 6 1 . 4 )8

Direct conversion from binary to Hexa decimal(Hex)

Binary numbers can be converted into equivalent Hex numbers by making groups of four bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for integer part of the number Then replacing each group of four bits by its Hex representation. For fractional part, the groupings of four bits are made starting from the binary point. If last group does not have 4 bits, then pad with zeros

Hex equivalent of 4 bit binary Number

Hex Digits binary: 016 = 116 = 216 = 316 = 416 = 516 = 616 = 716 = 816 = to 00002 00012 00102 00112 01002 01012 01102 01112 10002

Hex Digits to binary (cont): 916 = 10012 A16 = 10102 B16 = 10112 C16 = 11002 D16 = 11012 E16 = 11102 F16 = 11112