Foundations of Group Behavior

Defining and Classifying Groups

Group:
Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives

Formal Group:
Defined by the organizations structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks

Informal Group:
Alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact Deeply affect behavior and performance

Subclassifications of Groups
Formal Groups
Command Group
A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager

Informal Groups
Interest Group
Members work together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned

Task Group
Those working together to complete a job or task in an organization but not limited by hierarchical boundaries (e.g. College event)

Friendship Group
Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics (e.g. Cricket group, Religious group)

Why People Join Groups

Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal Achievement

See E X H I B I T 9-1

Five Stages of Group Development Model

E X H I B I T 9-2

The Five Stages of Group Development

1. Forming
Members feel much uncertainty

2. Storming
Lots of conflict between members of the group

3. Norming Stage
Members have developed close relationships and cohesiveness

4. Performing Stage
The group is finally fully functional

5. Adjourning Stage
In temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than performance

Critique of the Five-Stage Model

Assumption: the group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stages
Not always true group behavior is more complex High levels of conflict may be conducive to high performance The process is not always linear Several stages may occur simultaneously Groups may regress

Ignores the organizational context

(cockpit crew in an airline)

An Alternative Model for Group Formation

Temporary groups with deadlines dont follow the fivestage model Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
Temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activityat the halfway point, they experience an increase in productivity. Sequence of Actions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Setting group direction First phase of inertia Half-way point transition Major changes Second phase of inertia Accelerated activity
E X H I B I T 9-3

Group Properties
Norms Roles Status

Group Performance
Cohesiveness

Size

Group Property 1: Roles

Role
A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit (e.g. Nandita dasdirector, actor, social activist.)

Role Identity
Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role

Role Perception
An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation received by external stimuli

Role Expectations
How others believe a person should act in a given situation Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual expectations of management and employees

Role Conflict
A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations

Zimbardos Prison Experiment

Faked a prison using student volunteers Randomly assigned to guard and prisoner roles Within six days the experiment was halted due to concerns
Guards had dehumanized the prisoners Prisoners were subservient Fell into the roles as they understood them No real resistance felt

Group Property 2: Norms

Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the groups members

Classes of Norms
Performance norms - level of acceptable work Appearance norms - what to wear Social arrangement norms - friendships and the like Allocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments of jobs and material

Group Norms and the Hawthorne Studies

A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago between 1924 and 1932

Research Conclusions
Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related. Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual behavior. Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing individual worker output. Money was less a factor in determining worker output than were group standards, sentiments, and security.

Norms and Behavior

Reference Groups
Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform

Conformity
Gaining acceptance by adjusting ones behavior to align with the norms of the group

Asch Studies
Demonstrated the power of conformance Culture-based and declining in importance

E X H I B I T 9-4

Defying Norms: Deviant Workplace Behavior

Deviant Workplace Behavior
Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization Typology:
Production working speed Property damage and stealing Political favoritism and gossip Personal Aggression sexual harassment
E X H I B I T 9-5

Group Influence on Deviant Behavior

Group norms can influence the presence of deviant behavior Simply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of deviance Being in a group allows individuals to hide creates a false sense of confidence that they wont be caught
E X H I B I T 9-6

Group Property 3: Status

A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others it differentiates group members
Important factor in understanding behavior Significant motivator

Status Characteristics Theory

Status derived from one of three sources:
Power a person has over others Ability to contribute to group goals Personal characteristics

Status Effects
On Norms and Conformity
High-status members are less restrained by norms and pressure to conform Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members so long as it doesnt affect group goal achievement

On Group Interaction
High-status members are more assertive Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and creativity

On Equity
If status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in various forms of corrective behavior.

Group Property 4: Size

Group size affects behavior Size:
Twelve or more members is a large group Seven or fewer is a small group

Best use of a group:

Attribute
Speed Individual Performance Problem Solving Diverse Input

Small
X X

Large

X X

Fact-finding Goals
Overall Performance X

Issues with Group Size

Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually Ringelmanns Rope Pull: greater levels of productivity but with diminishing returns as group size increases Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of responsibility (free riders)

Managerial Implications
Build in individual accountability Prevent social loafing by:
Setting group goals Increase intergroup competition Use peer evaluation Distribute group rewards based on individual effort

Group Property 5: Cohesiveness

Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group Managerial Implication
To increase cohesiveness:
Make the group smaller. Encourage agreement with group goals. Increase time members spend together. Increase group status and admission difficulty. Stimulate competition with other groups. Give rewards to the group, not individuals. Physically isolate the group.
E X H I B I T 9-7

Group Decision Making vs. Individual Choice

Group Strengths:
Generate more complete information and knowledge Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity Increased acceptance of decisions Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most accurate group member) Time-consuming activity Conformity pressures in the group Discussions can be dominated by a few members A situation of ambiguous responsibility

Group Weaknesses:

Group Decision Making Phenomena

Groupthink
Situations where group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views Hinders performance

Groupshift
When discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. This causes a shift to more conservative or more risky behavior.

Groupthink
Symptoms:
Group members rationalize any resistance to the assumptions they have made Members apply direct pressures on those who express doubts about shared views or who question the alternative favored by the majority Members who have doubts or differing points of view keep silent about misgivings There appears to be an illusion of unanimity

Minimize Groupthink by:

Reduce the size of the group to 10 or less Encourage group leaders to be impartial Appoint a devils advocate Use exercises on diversity

Group Decision-making Techniques

Made in interacting groups where members meet face-toface and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication. Brainstorming
An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure for conformity

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process Members are physically present but operate independently

Electronic Meeting
Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people

Evaluating Group Effectiveness

Type of Group Effectiveness Criteria
Number and quality of ideas Social Pressure Money Costs Speed Task Orientation Potential for Interpersonal Conflict Commitment to Solution Development of Group Cohesiveness

Interacting
Low High Low Moderate Low High High High

Brainstorming
Moderate Low Low Moderate High Low N/A High

Nominal
High Moderate Low Moderate High Moderate Moderate Moderate

Electronic
High Low High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low

E X H I B I T 9-9

Global Implications
Status and Culture
The importance of status varies with culture Managers must understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from another culture

Social Loafing
Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures

Group Diversity
Increased diversity leads to increased conflict May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups may perform better Surface diversity may increase openness

Summary and Managerial Implications

Performance
Typically, clear role perception, appropriate norms, low status differences and smaller, more cohesive groups lead to higher performance

Satisfaction
Increases with:
High congruence between boss and employees perceptions about the job Not being forced to communicate with lower-status employees Smaller group size