Foundations

Foundations of
of Group
Group Behavior
Behavior

9-1
 Learning
Learning Objectives
Objectives
– Define groups, and differentiate between different types of groups.
– Identify the five stages of group development.
– Show how role requirements change in different situations.
– Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an
individual’s behavior.
– Show how group size affects group performance.
– Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups.
– Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making.
– Compare the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, nominal,
and electronic meeting groups.
– Evaluate evidence for cultural differences in group status and
social loafing, and the effects of diversity in groups.

9-2
Defining
Defining and
and Classifying
Classifying Groups
Groups
 Group:
– Two or more individuals interacting and interdependent,
who have come together to achieve particular objectives
 Formal Group:
– Defined by the organization’s structure with designated
work assignments establishing tasks
 Informal Group:
– Alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined
– Appear naturally in response to the need for social contact
– Deeply affect behavior and performance

9-3
Subclassifications
Subclassifications of
of Groups
Groups

Formal Groups Informal Groups

 Command Group  Interest Group
– A group composed of the – Members work together to
individuals who report attain a specific objective with
directly to a given manager which each is concerned
 Task Group  Friendship Group
– Those working together to – Those brought together
complete a job or task in an because they share one or
organization but not limited more common characteristics
by hierarchical boundaries

9-4
Why
Why People
People Join
Join Groups
Groups

 Security
 Status
 Self-esteem
 Affiliation
 Power
 Goal Achievement

See E X H I B I T 9-1
See E X H I B I T 9-1

9-5
Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development Model
Model

E X H I B I T 9-2
E X H I B I T 9-2

9-6
The
The Five
Five Stages
Stages of
of Group
Group Development
Development
1. Forming
– Members feel much uncertainty
2. Storming
– Lots of conflict between members of the group
3. Norming Stage
– Members have developed close relationships and
cohesiveness
4. Performing Stage
– The group is finally fully functional
5. Adjourning Stage
– In temporary groups, characterized by concern with
wrapping up activities rather than performance

9-7
Critique
Critique of
of the
the Five-Stage
Five-Stage Model
Model
 Assumption: the group becomes more effective as it
progresses through the first four stages
– Not always true – group behavior is more complex
– High levels of conflict may be conducive to high
performance
– The process is not always linear
– Several stages may occur simultaneously
– Groups may regress
 Ignores the organizational context

9-8
An
An Alternative
Alternative Model
Model for
for Group
Group Formation
Formation
Temporary groups with deadlines don’t follow the five-
stage model
Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
– Temporary groups under deadlines go through transitions
between inertia and activity—at the halfway point, they
experience an increase in productivity.
– Sequence of Actions
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity
E X H I B I T 9-3
E X H I B I T 9-3

9-9
Group
Group Properties
Properties

9-10
Group
Group Property
Property 1:
1: Roles
Roles
 Role
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone
occupying a given position in a social unit
 Role Identity
– Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role
 Role Perception
– An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a
given situation – received by external stimuli
 Role Expectations
– How others believe a person should act in a given situation
– Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out
mutual expectations of management and employees
 Role Conflict
– A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent
role expectations
9-11
Group
Group Property
Property 2:
2: Norms
Norms
 Norms
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are
shared by the group’s members
 Classes of Norms
– Performance norms - level of acceptable work
– Appearance norms - what to wear
– Social arrangement norms - friendships and the like
– Allocation of resources norms - distribution and assignments
of jobs and material

9-12
Group
Group Norms
Norms and
and the
the Hawthorne
Hawthorne Studies
Studies
A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western
Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago between
1924 and 1932

Research Conclusions
– Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting
individual behavior.
– Group standards (norms) were highly effective in
establishing individual worker output.
– Money was less a factor in determining worker output than
were group standards, sentiments, and security.

9-13
Group
Group Property
Property 3:
3: Status
Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
group members by others – it differentiates group
members
– Important factor in understanding behavior
– Significant motivator

Status Characteristics Theory

– Status derived from one of three sources:
• Power a person has over others
• Ability to contribute to group goals
• Personal characteristics

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Status
Status Effects
Effects
 On Norms and Conformity
– High-status members are less restrained by norms and
pressure to conform
– Some level of deviance is allowed to high-status members so
long as it doesn’t affect group goal achievement
 On Group Interaction
– High-status members are more assertive
– Large status differences limit diversity of ideas and
creativity
 On Equity
– If status is perceived to be inequitable, it will result in
various forms of corrective behavior.

9-15
Group
Group Influence
Influence on
on Deviant
Deviant Behavior
Behavior

– Group norms can influence the presence of deviant behavior

– Simply belonging to a group increases the likelihood of
deviance
– Being in a group allows individuals to hide – creates a false
sense of confidence that they won’t be caught

E X H I B I T 9-6
E X H I B I T 9-6

9-16
Group
Group Property
Property 44 :: Size
Size
 Group size affects behavior
 Size:
– Twelve or more members is a “large” group
– Seven or fewer is a “small” group
 Best use of a group:
Attribute Small Large
Speed X
Individual Performance X
Problem Solving X
Diverse Input X
Fact-finding Goals X
Overall Performance X

9-17
Issues
Issues with
with Group
Group Size
Size
 Social Loafing
– The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually
– Ringelmann’s Rope Pull: greater levels of productivity but
with diminishing returns as group size increases
– Caused by either equity concerns or a diffusion of
responsibility (free riders)
 Managerial Implications
– Build in individual accountability
– Prevent social loafing by:
• Setting group goals
• Increase intergroup competition
• Use peer evaluation
• Distribute group rewards based on individual effort

9-18
Group
Group Property
Property 55 :: Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to each
other and are motivated to stay in the group

Managerial Implication
– To increase cohesiveness:
• Make the group smaller.
• Encourage agreement with group goals.
• Increase time members spend together.
• Increase group status and admission difficulty.
• Stimulate competition with other groups.
• Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
• Physically isolate the group.
E X H I B I T 9-7
E X H I B I T 9-7
9-19
Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making vs.
vs. Individual
Individual Choice
Choice
 Group Strengths:
– Generate more complete information and knowledge
– Offer increased diversity of views and greater creativity
– Increased acceptance of decisions
– Generally more accurate (but not as accurate as the most
accurate group member)
 Group Weaknesses:
– Time-consuming activity
– Conformity pressures in the group
– Discussions can be dominated by a few members
– A situation of ambiguous responsibility

9-20
Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making Phenomena
Phenomena

 Groupthink
– Situations where group pressures for conformity deter the
group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or
unpopular views
– Hinders performance

9-21
Group
Group Decision-making
Decision-making Techniques
Techniques
Made in interacting groups where members meet face-to-
face and rely on verbal and nonverbal communication.
Brainstorming
– An idea-generating process designed to overcome pressure
for conformity
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
– Works by restricting discussion during the decision-making
process
– Members are physically present but operate independently
Electronic Meeting
– Uses computers to hold large meetings of up to 50 people

9-22
 Global
Global Implications
Implications
 Status and Culture
– The importance of status varies with culture
– Managers must understand who and what holds status when
interacting with people from another culture
 Social Loafing
– Most often in Western (individualistic) cultures
 Group Diversity
– Increased diversity leads to increased conflict
– May cause early withdrawal and lowered morale
– If the initial difficulties are overcome, diverse groups may
perform better
– Surface diversity may increase openness

9-23
Summary
Summary and
and Managerial
Managerial Implications
Implications
 Performance
– Typically, clear role perception, appropriate norms, low
status differences and smaller, more cohesive groups lead to
higher performance

 Satisfaction
– Increases with:
• High congruence between boss and employee’s perceptions
about the job
• Not being forced to communicate with lower-status employees
• Smaller group size

9-24