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Foundations of
Group Behavior
Chapter NINE
1
Group(s)
Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives.
Formal Group
A designated work
group defined by the
organizations structure.
Informal Group
A group that is neither
formally structured nor
organizationally determined;
appears in response to the
need for social contact.
Proximity, interactions, & emotion.
Defining and Classifying Groups
2
Command Group
A group composed of
the individuals who
report directly to a
given manager.
Task Group
Those working together
to complete a job or task.
Interest Group
Those working together
to attain a specific
objective with which
each is concerned.
Friendship Group
Those brought together
because they share one
or more common
characteristics.
Defining and Classifying Groups
3
Why People Join Groups
Security
Status
Self-esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal Achievement

4
The Five-Stage Model of Group Development
Forming Stage
The first stage in group development, characterized
by much uncertainty.
Storming Stage
The second stage in group development,
characterized by intragroup conflict.
Norming Stage
The third stage in group
development, characterized
by close relationships and
cohesiveness.
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Group Development
Performing Stage
The fourth stage in group development, when the
group is fully functional.
Adjourning Stage
The final stage in group
development for temporary
groups, characterized by
concern with wrapping up
activities rather than
performance.
Stages of Group Development
E X H I B I T 92
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An Alternative Model: Temporary Groups
with Deadlines
Sequence of actions:
1. Setting group direction
2. First phase of inertia
3. Half-way point transition
4. Major changes
5. Second phase of inertia
6. Accelerated activity
Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model
Temporary groups
under time constrained
deadlines go through
transitions between
inertia and activity---at
the half-way point,
they experience an
increase in productivity.
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E X H I B I T 93
The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
9
Group Properties
Roles
Norms
Status
Size
Cohesiveness
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Group Properties - Roles
Role(s)
A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
Role Identity
Certain attitudes and behaviors
consistent with a role.
Role Perception
An individuals view of how he or she
is supposed to act in a given situation.
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Group Properties - Roles
Role Expectations
How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
Role Conflict
A situation in which an individual is confronted by
divergent role expectations.
Psychological Contract
An unwritten agreement that sets out what management
expects from the employee and vice versa.
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Group Properties - Norms
Classes of Norms:
Performance norms
Appearance norms
Social arrangement norms
Allocation of resources norms
Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group
that are shared by the groups members.
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Group Norms & The Hawthorne Studies
A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at Western
Electric Companys Hawthorne Works in Chicago between
1924 and 1932.
Research Conclusions:
Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related.
Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting individual
behavior.
Group standards (norms) were highly effective in establishing
individual worker output.
Money was less a factor in determining worker output than
were group standards, sentiments, and security.
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Conformity
Adjusting ones behavior to align
with the norms of the group.
Reference Groups
Important groups to which
individuals belong or hope
to belong and with whose
norms individuals are likely
to conform.
EXHIBIT 94
ASCH
STUDY
Group Properties - Norms
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Deviant Workplace Behavior
Antisocial actions by organizational members
that intentionally violate established norms and
result in negative consequences for the
organization, its members, or both.

Group norms can influence the
presence of deviant behavior.
Group Properties - Norms
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E X H I B I T 95
Category Examples

Production Leaving early
Intentionally working slowly
Wasting resources
Property Sabotage
Lying about hours worked
Stealing from the organization
Political Showing favoritism
Gossiping and spreading rumors
Blaming coworkers
Personal Aggression Sexual harassment
Verbal abuse
Stealing from coworkers
Source: Adapted from S.L. Robinson, and R.J. Bennett. A Typology of Deviant Workplace Behaviors:
A Multidimensional Scaling Study, Academy of Management Journal, April 1995, p. 565.
Typology of Deviant Workplace Behavior
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Power over
Others
Ability to
Contribute
Personal
Characteristics
Group Member
Status
Status: A socially defined position or rank given to groups
or group members by others.
Norms &
Interaction
Status Inequity
National
Culture
Other things influencing
or influenced by status
Group Properties - Status
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Group Size
Performance
Other conclusions:
Odd number groups do
better than even.
Groups of 5 to 7 perform
better overall than larger or
smaller groups.
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually.
Group Properties - Size
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Group Properties - Cohesiveness
Increasing group cohesiveness:
1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group goals.
3. Increase time members spend together.
4. Increase group status and admission difficultly.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
7. Physically isolate the group.
Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
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Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,
Performance Norms, and Productivity
E X H I B I T 9-7
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E X H I B I T 98
S. Adams, Build a Better Life by
Stealing Office Supplies (Kansas
City MO: Andrews & McMeal,
1991), p. 31. Dilbert reprinted with
permission of United Features
Syndicate, Inc.
24
Group Decision Making
Decision-making
Large groups facilitate the pooling of information
about complex tasks.
Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and
facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.
Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in
order for the group to perform well.
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Group Decision Making
Strengths
More complete
information
Increased diversity of
views
Higher quality of
decisions (more
accuracy)
Increased acceptance
of solutions
Weaknesses
More time consuming
(slower)
Increased pressure to
conform
Domination by one or
a few members
Ambiguous
responsibility
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Group Decision Making
Groupthink
Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus
overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course
of action.
Groupshift
A change in decision risk between the groups
decision and the individual decision that member
within the group would make; can be either toward
conservatism or greater risk.
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Symptoms Of The Groupthink Phenomenon
Group members rationalize any resistance to the
assumptions they have made.
Members apply direct pressures on those who express
doubts about shared views or who question the
alternative favored by the majority.
Members who have doubts or differing points of view
keep silent about misgivings.
There appears to be an illusion of unanimity.
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Group Decision-Making Techniques
Interacting Groups
Typical groups, in which the members interact with
each other face-to-face.
Nominal Group Technique
A group decision-making method in which individual
members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments
in a systematic but independent fashion.
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Group Decision-Making Techniques
Electronic Meeting
A meeting in which members
interact on computers, allowing
for anonymity of comments and
aggregation of votes.
Brainstorming
An idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives, while
withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
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Evaluating Group Effectiveness
E X H I B I T 99
TYPE OF GROUP
Effectiveness Criteria Interacting Brainstorming Nominal Electronic
Number and quality of ideas Low Moderate High High
Social pressure High Low Moderate Low
Money costs Low Low Low High
Speed Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Task orientation Low High High High
Potential for interpersonal
conflict High Low Moderate Low
Commitment to solution High Not applicable Moderate Moderate
Development of High High Moderate Low
group cohesiveness
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Team Versus Group: Whats the Difference?
Work Group
A group that interacts primarily to
share information and to make
decisions to help each group
member perform within his or her
area of responsibility.
Work Team
A group whose individual efforts
result in a performance that is greater
than the sum of the individual inputs.
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Why Have Teams Become So Popular?
Teams typically outperform individuals.
Teams use employee talents better.
Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes in
the environment.
Teams facilitate employee involvement.
Teams are an effective way to democratize an
organization and increase motivation.
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Comparing Work Groups & Work Teams
E X H I B I T 101
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Types of Teams
Problem-Solving Teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the
same department who meet for a few
hours each week to discuss ways of
improving quality, efficiency, and the
work environment.
Self-Managed Work Teams
Groups of 10 to 15 people who take
on the responsibilities of their former
supervisors.
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Types of Teams
Task forces
Committees
Cross-Functional Teams
Employees from about the same hierarchical level,
but from different work areas, who come together to
accomplish a task.
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Types of Teams (contd)
Characteristics of Virtual Teams
1. The absence of paraverbal and nonverbal cues
2. A limited social context
3. The ability to overcome time and space constraints
Virtual Teams
Teams that use computer
technology to tie together
physically dispersed
members in order to
achieve a common goal.
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A Team-
Effectiveness
Model
E X H I B I T 103
38
Creating Effective Teams
39
Key Roles of
Teams
E X H I B I T 104
40
Creating Effective Teams
41
Creating Effective Teams
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Effects of Group Processes
+
MINUS
=
E X H I B I T 105
Goal: Maximize Process Gains While
Minimizing Process Losses!
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Creating Effective Teams: Diversity
Group Demography
The degree to which members of a group share a
common demographic attribute, such as age, sex, race,
educational level, or length of service in the organization,
and the impact of this attribute on turnover.
Cohorts
Individuals who, as part of a
group, hold a common
attribute.
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Turning Individuals Into Team Players
The Challenges
Overcoming individual resistance to team membership.
Countering the influence of individualistic cultures.
Introducing teams in an organization that has historically valued
individual achievement.
Shaping Team Players
Selecting employees who can fulfill their team roles.
Training employees to become team players.
Reworking the reward system to encourage cooperative efforts
while continuing to recognize individual contributions.
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Teams and Quality Management
Team Effectiveness and Quality Management
Requires That Teams:
1. Are small enough to be efficient and effective.
2. Are properly trained in required skills.
3. Allocated enough time to work on problems.
4. Are given authority to resolve problems and take
corrective action.
5. Have a designated champion to call on when
needed.
True or False: The Punctuated Equilibrium
Model suggests that groups have an equilibrium,
but that equilibrium will be punctuated at the
half-way point. But, after the punctuation, the
group will return to the equilibrium it had prior to
the punctuation.

Chapter Check-Up: Groups
FALSE. The first part is true, but the second
sentence is false. After the punctuation, the group
will have a new equilibrium of increased
productivity.
List 2 drawbacks of brainstorming and 2
plusses of the Nominal Group Decision
Making Technique. Compare your answers
with your neighbor, and discuss which one
you would use for a group project in this
class and why.
Chapter Check-Up: Groups
Lorraine is a non-traditional student (shes 51 years old)
and is working in a group for a class project. They keep
turning to her for the answers to questions. Which of
the following might the group have that is driving
Lorraines experience?


Chapter Check-Up: Groups
Groupthink
Groupshift
Role Conflict
Role Expectations

Chapter Check-Up: Groups
The group may have role expectations of Lorraine---
e.g., because shes older, that she should be the
wise one and know the answers like a parent should.