Chapter 37

Interference of Light Waves

Wave Optics
 Wave optics is a study concerned with
phenomena that cannot be adequately
explained by geometric (ray) optics
 These phenomena include:
 Interference
 Diffraction
 Polarization
Interference
 In constructive interference the amplitude of
the resultant wave is greater than that of
either individual wave
 In destructive interference the amplitude of
the resultant wave is less than that of either
individual wave
 All interference associated with light waves
arises when the electromagnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves combine
Conditions for Interference
 To observe interference in light waves,
the following two conditions must be
met:
1) The sources must be coherent

They must maintain a constant phase with
respect to each other
2) The sources should be monochromatic

Monochromatic means they have a single
wavelength
Producing Coherent Sources
 Light from a monochromatic source is
used to illuminate a barrier
 The barrier contains two narrow slits
 The slits are small openings
 The light emerging from the two slits is
coherent since a single source
produces the original light beam
 This is a commonly used method
Diffraction
 From Huygens’s
principle we know
the waves spread
out from the slits
 This divergence of
light from its initial
line of travel is
called diffraction
 Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment: Schematic
 Thomas Young first
demonstrated interference
in light waves from two
sources in 1801
 The narrow slits S1 and S2
act as sources of waves
 The waves emerging from
the slits originate from the
same wave front and
therefore are always in
phase
Resulting Interference Pattern
 The light from the two slits
forms a visible pattern on a
screen
 The pattern consists of a
series of bright and dark
parallel bands called fringes
 Constructive interference
occurs where a bright fringe
occurs
 Destructive interference
results in a dark fringe
Active Figure 37.2

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

 Interference Patterns
 Constructive interference
occurs at point P
 The two waves travel the
same distance
 Therefore, they arrive in
phase
 As a result, constructive
interference occurs at this
point and a bright fringe is
observed
Interference Patterns, 2
 The upper wave has
to travel farther than
the lower wave to
reach point Q
 The upper wave
travels one
wavelength farther
 Therefore, the waves
arrive in phase
 A second bright fringe
occurs at this position
 Interference Patterns, 3
 The upper wave travels
one-half of a
wavelength farther than
the lower wave to reach
point R
 The trough of the
bottom wave overlaps
the crest of the upper
wave
 This is destructive
interference
 A dark fringe occurs
 Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment: Geometry
 The path difference, δ,
is found from the tan
triangle
 δ = r2 – r1 = d sin θ
 This assumes the paths
are parallel
 Not exactly true, but a
very good approximation
if L is much greater than
d
Interference Equations
 For a bright fringe produced by constructive
interference, the path difference must be
either zero or some integral multiple of the
wavelength
 δ = d sin θ bright = mλ
 m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
 m is called the order number
 When m = 0, it is the zeroth-order maximum
 When m = ±1, it is called the first-order maximum
Interference Equations, 2
 When destructive interference occurs, a
dark fringe is observed
 This needs a path difference of an odd
half wavelength
 δ = d sin θdark = (m + ½)λ
 m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
Interference Equations, 4
 The positions of the fringes can be measured
vertically from the zeroth-order maximum
 Assumptions
 L >> d
 d >> λ
 Approximation:
 θ is small and therefore the small angle
approximation tan θ ~ sin θ can be used
 y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ
Interference Equations, final
 For bright fringes
λL
y bright  m (m  0 ,  1,  2 K )
d
 For dark fringes
λL  1
y dark   m   (m  0 ,  1,  2 K )
d  2
Uses for Young’s Double-Slit
Experiment
 Young’s double-slit experiment provides
a method for measuring wavelength of
the light
 This experiment gave the wave model
of light a great deal of credibility
 It was inconceivable that particles of light
could cancel each other in a way that
would explain the dark fringes
Intensity Distribution: Double-
Slit Interference Pattern
 The bright fringes in the interference
pattern do not have sharp edges
 The equations developed give the location
of only the centers of the bright and dark
fringes
 We can calculate the distribution of light
intensity associated with the double-slit
interference pattern
Intensity Distribution,
Assumptions
 Assumptions:
 The two slits represent coherent sources of
sinusoidal waves
 The waves from the slits have the same angular
frequency, ω
 The waves have a constant phase difference, φ
 The total magnitude of the electric field at
any point on the screen is the
superposition of the two waves
Intensity Distribution,
Electric Fields
 The magnitude of
each wave at point
P can be found
 E1 = Eo sin ωt
 E2 = Eo sin (ωt + φ)
 Both waves have the
same amplitude, Eo
Intensity Distribution,
Phase Relationships
 The phase difference between the two waves
at P depends on their path difference
 = r2 – r1 = d sin θ
 A path difference of λ corresponds to a phase
difference of 2π rad
 A path difference of is the same fraction of λ
as the phase difference φ is of 2π
 This gives φ  2π δ  2π d sin θ
λ λ
Intensity Distribution,
Resultant Field
 The magnitude of the resultant electric field
comes from the superposition principle
 EP = E1+ E2 = Eo[sin ωt + sin (ωt + φ)]

 This can also be expressed as

 φ  φ
EP  2Eωt
o cos  sin   
 2  2
 EP has the same frequency as the light at the slits
 The magnitude of the field is multiplied by the
factor 2 cos (φ / 2)
Intensity Distribution, Equation
 The expression for the intensity comes
from the fact that the intensity of a wave
is proportional to the square of the
resultant electric field magnitude at that
point
 The intensity therefore is
 πd sin θ  2  πd 
I  I max cos 
2
  I max cos  y
 λ   λL 
Light Intensity, Graph
 The interference
pattern consists of
equally spaced
fringes of equal
intensity
 This result is valid
only if L >> d and for
small values of θ
 Phasor Addition of Waves, E1
 The sinusoidal wave can
be represented
graphically by a phasor of
magnitude Eo rotating
about the origin
counterclockwise with an
angular frequency ω
 E1 = Eo sin ωt
 It makes an angle of ωt with
the horizontal axis
 E1 is the projection on the
vertical axis
Phasor Addition of Waves, E2
 The second
sinusoidal wave is
E2 = Eo sin (ωt + φ)
 It has the same
amplitude and
frequency as E1
 Its phase is φ with
respect to E1
 Phasor Addition of Waves, ER
 The resultant is the
sum of E1 and E2
 ER rotates with the
same angular
frequency ω
 The projection of ER
along the vertical axis
equals the sum of the
projections of the
other two vectors
 ER at a Given Time
 From geometry at t = 0,
ER = 2E0 cos α = 2Eo cos
(φ / 2)
 The projection of ER
along the vertical axis at
any time t is
 φ
EP  Eωt
R sin   
 2
φ  φ
 2Eωt
o cos sin   
2  2
Finding the Resultant of
Several Waves
 Represent the
waves by phasors
 Remember to
maintain the proper
phase relationship
between one phasor
and the next
 The resultant phasor
ER is the vector sum
of the individual
phasors
Finding the Resultant of
Several Waves, cont.
 At each instant, the projection of ER
along the vertical axis represents the
time variation of the resultant wave
 The phase angle α is between ER and
the first phasor
 The resultant is given by the expression
EP = ER sin (ωt + φ)
Phasor Diagrams for Two
Coherent Sources, Comments
 ER is a maximum at φ = 0, 2π, 4π, …
 The intensity is also a maximum at these
points
 ER is zero at φ = π, 3π, …
 The intensity is also zero at these points
 These results agree with the results
obtained from other procedures
Phasor Diagrams for Two
Coherent Sources, Diagrams
Three-Slit Interference Pattern
 Assume three equally spaced slits
 The fields are:
 E1 = Eo sin ωt
 E2 = Eo sin (ωt + φ)
 E3 = Eo sin (ωt + 2φ)
 Phasor diagrams can be used to find
the resultant magnitude of the electric
field
Active Figure 37.11

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

 Three Slits – Phasor Diagram
 The phasor diagram
shows the electric field
components and the
resultant field
 The field at P has a
maximum value of 3Eo
at φ = 0, ±2 , ± 4 ...
 These points are called
primary maxima
Three Slits, Additional Maxima
 The primary maxima occur when the
phasors are in the same direction
 Secondary maxima occur when the
wave from one slit exactly cancels the
wave from another slit
 The field at P has a value of Eo
 These points occur at φ = 0, ± , ±3 ...
Three Slits, Minima
 Total destructive interference occurs
when the wave from all the slits form a
closed triangle
 The field at P has a value of 0
 These points occur at φ = 0, ±2 /3, ±4 /3
...
Three Slits, Phasor Diagrams
Three Slits, Intensity Graphs
 The primary maxima
are nine times more
intense than the
secondary maxima
 The intensity varies
as ER2
 For N slits, the
primary maxima is
N2 times greater
than that due to a
single slit
Active Figure 37.13

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Three Slits, Final Comments
 As the number of slits increases, the primary
maxima increase in intensity and become
narrower
 As the number of slits increases, the
secondary maxima decrease in intensity with
respect to the primary maxima
 As the number of slits increases, the number
of secondary maxima also increases
 The number of secondary maxima is always
N - 2 where N is the number of slits
 Lloyd’s Mirror
 An arrangement for
producing an interference
pattern with a single light
source
 Waves reach point P
either by a direct path or
by reflection
 The reflected ray can be
treated as a ray from the
source S’ behind the
mirror
Interference Pattern from a
Lloyd’s Mirror
 This arrangement can be thought of as a
double-slit source with the distance between
points S and S’ comparable to length d
 An interference pattern is formed
 The positions of the dark and bright fringes
are reversed relative to the pattern of two real
sources
 This is because there is a 180° phase change
produced by the reflection
 Phase Changes Due To
Reflection
 An electromagnetic
wave undergoes a
phase change of 180°
upon reflection from a
medium of higher index
of refraction than the
one in which it was
traveling
 Analogous to a pulse
on a string reflected
from a rigid support
Phase Changes Due To
Reflection, cont.
 There is no phase
change when the
wave is reflected
from a boundary
leading to a
medium of lower
index of refraction
 Analogous to a
pulse on a string
reflecting from a
free support
Interference in Thin Films
 Interference effects are commonly
observed in thin films
 Examples include soap bubbles and oil on
water
 The varied colors observed when white
light is incident on such films result from
the interference of waves reflected from
the two surfaces of the film
Interference in Thin Films, 2
 Facts to note
 An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium
of index of refraction n1 toward a medium of index
of refraction n2 undergoes a 180° phase change
on reflection when n2 > n1

There is no phase change in the reflected wave
if n2 < n1
 The wavelength of light λn in a medium with index
of refraction n is λn = λ/n where λ is the wavelength
of light in vacuum
Interference in Thin Films, 3
 Assume the light rays
are traveling in air nearly
normal to the two
surfaces of the film
 Ray 1 undergoes a
phase change of 180°
with respect to the
incident ray
 Ray 2, which is reflected
from the lower surface,
undergoes no phase
change with respect to
the incident wave
Interference in Thin Films, 4
 Ray 2 also travels an additional distance of 2t
before the waves recombine
 For constructive interference
 2nt = (m + ½)λ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)

This takes into account both the difference in optical path
length for the two rays and the 180° phase change
 For destructive interference
 2nt = mλ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)
Interference in Thin Films, 5
 Two factors influence interference
 Possible phase reversals on reflection
 Differences in travel distance
 The conditions are valid if the medium above
the top surface is the same as the medium
below the bottom surface
 If there are different media, these conditions are
valid as long as the index of refraction for both is
less than n
Interference in Thin Films, 6
 If the thin film is between two different media,
one of lower index than the film and one of
higher index, the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference are reversed
 With different materials on either side of the
film, you may have a situation in which there
is a 180o phase change at both surfaces or at
neither surface
 Be sure to check both the path length and the
phase change
Interference in Thin Film,
Soap Bubble Example
Newton’s Rings
 Another method for viewing interference is to
place a plano-convex lens on top of a flat glass
surface
 The air film between the glass surfaces varies in
thickness from zero at the point of contact to
some thickness t
 A pattern of light and dark rings is observed
 These rings are called Newton’s rings
 The particle model of light could not explain the origin
of the rings
 Newton’s rings can be used to test optical lenses
Newton’s Rings,
Set-Up and Pattern
Problem Solving Strategy with
Thin Films, 1
 Identify the thin film causing the
interference
 The type of interference – constructive
or destructive – that occurs is
determined by the phase relationship
between the upper and lower surfaces
Problem Solving with Thin
Films, 2
 Phase differences have two causes
 differences in the distances traveled
 phase changes occurring on reflection
 Both causes must be considered when
determining constructive or destructive
interference
 The interference is constructive if the path
difference is an integral multiple of λ and
destructive if the path difference is an odd
half multiple of λ
Michelson Interferometer
 The interferometer was invented by an
American physicist, A. A. Michelson
 The interferometer splits light into two
parts and then recombines the parts to
form an interference pattern
 The device can be used to measure
wavelengths or other lengths with great
precision
Michelson Interferometer,
Schematic
 A ray of light is split
into two rays by the
mirror Mo
 The mirror is at 45o
to the incident beam
 The mirror is called a
beam splitter
 It transmits half the
light and reflects the
rest
Michelson Interferometer,
Schematic Explanation, cont.
 The reflected ray goes toward mirror M1
 The transmitted ray goes toward mirror
M2
 The two rays travel separate paths L1
and L2
 After reflecting from M1 and M2, the rays
eventually recombine at Mo and form an
interference pattern
Active Figure 37.22

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Michelson Interferometer –
Operation
 The interference condition for the two
rays is determined by their path length
difference
 M1 is moveable
 As it moves, the fringe pattern collapses
or expands, depending on the direction
M1 is moved
 Michelson Interferometer –
Operation, cont.
 The fringe pattern shifts by one-half fringe
each time M1 is moved a distance λ/4
 The wavelength of the light is then
measured by counting the number of
fringe shifts for a given displacement of M1
Michelson Interferometer –
Applications
 The Michelson interferometer was used
to disprove the idea that the Earth
moves through an ether
 Modern applications include
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FTIR)
 Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory (LIGO)
Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy
 This is used to create a high-resolution
spectrum in a very short time interval
 The result is a complex set of data relating
light intensity as a function of mirror position
 This is called an interferogram
 The interferogram can be analyzed by a
computer to provide all of the wavelength
components
 This process is called a Fourier transform
Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory
 General relativity predicts the existence
of gravitational waves
 In Einstein’s theory, gravity is equivalent
to a distortion of space
 These distortions can then propagate
through space
 The LIGO apparatus is designed to
detect the distortion produced by a
disturbance that passes near the Earth
LIGO, cont.
 The interferometer uses laser beams with an
effective path length of several kilometers
 At the end of an arm of the interferometer, a
mirror is mounted on a massive pendulum
 When a gravitational wave passes, the
pendulum moves, and the interference
pattern due to the laser beams from the two
arms changes
LIGO in Richland, Washington