Digicom 101
Digicom 101
Digicom 101
ECE 422L
Pulse Modulation
2013
Digital Source: Source alphabet Symbol rate Source alphabet probabilities Probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence
Parameters:
Transmission bandwidth Probability of symbol Synchronous or asynchronous method of detection Complexity of implementation
Digital Demodulator:
processes the channel corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the transmitted data symbols.
Source Decoder
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm. And which results in the approximate replica of the input at the transmitter end
1. Digital signals are very easy to receive. 2. In digital signals, the original signal can be reproduced accurately.
3. digital signals can be cleaned up to restore the quality and amplified by the regenerators.
Merits of Digital Communication 4. The noise may change the shape of the pulses but not the pattern of the pulses. 5. But digital signals can be coded so that only the person, who is intended for, can receive them.
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Digital data
Takes on discrete values. Ex. Text and integers
Analog Signal
Continuously varying electromagnetic wave representing data carried over a variety of medium
Digital Signal
Sequence of voltage pulses representing data transmitted over a wire medium
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Remember!
Analog or Digital Data Can Be Represented By Either Analog or Digital Signals.
These Signals Can Then Be Propogated (Moved Along a Medium). Optical Fiber Only Propogates Analog Signals
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Remember!
Short distance transmissions, baseband modulation is usually used. Baseband modulation is often called line coding For long distance and wireless transmissions, bandpass modulation is usually used. Bandpass modulation is also called carrier modulation
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Transporting the pulses from a source to destination over a physical transmission medium.
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SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of taking samples of the analogue signals at given interval of time. Only samples are being transmitted. If sufficient samples are sent and sampling theorem are met the original signal can be reconstructed at the receiver
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SAMPLING THEOREM
Sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice the maximum information signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with minimum distortion. This is called Nyquist Rate, fs 2fmax fs sampling frequency, fmax maximum freq of the modulating signal
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The process of transmitting signals in the form of pulses by using special techniques. This slides includes:
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Analog pulse modulation A periodic pulse train is used as the carrier wave Some characteristic feature of each pulse is varied in a continuous manner in accordance with the corresponding sample value of the message signal Analog pulse-modulation systems rely on the sampling process to maintain continuous amplitude representation of the message signal
Digital pulse modulation The message signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time and amplitude Its transmission in digital form as a sequence of coded pulse Digital pulse-modulation system use not only the sampling process but also the quantization process. Digital modulation makes it possible to exploit the full power of digital signal-processing techniques.
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with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal(message signal) keeping width and position of carrier constant *The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that sampling instant. This technique is called sampling. * For minimum distortion, the sampling rate should be more than twice the signal frequency.
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Analog Signal
AND Gate
FM Modulator
PAM - FM
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Analog Signal
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Types of PAM
There are 2 types of PAM :
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Natural Sampling
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Demerits
Added noise cannot be removed easily as it has impact on amplitude which carries information. Transmission bandwidth is too large. 28
* the amplitude is maintained constant but the duration or length or width of each pulse is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of the analog signal keeping amplitude and position of carrier constant * The negative side of the signal is brought to the positive side by adding a fixed d.c. voltage.
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Analog Signal
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PWM Waveform
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Demerits
Bandwidth requirement is large as compared to PAM. 32
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PWM
PPM
* This wave can be further amended by eliminating the whole positive narrow pulses. The remaining pulse is called clipped PPM.
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The modulation system in which position of the discrete carrier signal changes in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal(message signal) keeping amplitude and Width of carrier constant is called as PPM.
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PPM Generator
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PPM Waveform
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Demerit
Generation and detection is complex.
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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because it is more robust to noise and can easily be recovered, corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency today is to change an analog signal to digital data. Generally used two techniques are : pulse code modulation and delta modulation
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Trivia!
PCM was invented by the British engineer Alec Reeves in 1937 in France. It was not until about the middle of 1943 that the Bell Labs people became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves.
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PCM Encoder
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1. Sampling: The process of generating pulses of zero width and of amplitude equal to the instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal. The no. of pulses per second is called sampling rate. Nyquist theorem
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2. Quantization:
The process of dividing the maximum value of the analog signal into a fixed no. of levels in order to convert the PAM into a Binary Code. The levels obtained are called quanization levels.
quantizing process will produce errors called quantizing errors or quantizing noise
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Nonuniform Quantizing
Voice analog signals are more likely to have amplitude values near zero than at the extreme peak values allowed. For signals with nonuniform amplitude distribution, the granular quantizing noise will be a serious problem if the step size is not reduced for amplitude values near zero and increased for extremely large values. This is called nonuniform quantizing since a variable step size is used.
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Nonuniform Quantizing
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3. Binary encoding:
Note: A digital signal is described by its bit rate whereas analog signal is described by its frequency range.
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Encoding
Encoding is the process of representing the sampled values as a binary number in the range 0 to n. The value of n is chosen as a power of 2, depending on the accuracy required. Increasing n reduces the step size between adjacent Quantization levels and hence reduces the Quantization noise. The down side of this is that the amount of digital data required to represent the analog signal increases.
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PCM Decoder
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PCM Decoder
To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we follow the following steps:
We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a pulse till the next pulse arrives. We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is equal to the highest frequency in the pre-sampled signal.
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PCM Parameter
Dynamic Range Resolution Maximum allowable input amplitude Coding efficiency Ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded
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PCM Parameter
Dynamic Range, DR
Ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded DR=Vmax/Vmin = Vmax/Resolution
2n 1 >=DR
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Dynamic Range
Is the ratio of the strongest possible signal that can be transmitted and the weakest discernible signal In a linear PCM system, the maximum dynamic range is found by:
DR = (1.76 + 6.02m) dB
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Companding
Sometimes called compassion used to improve dynamic range
Compression is used on the transmitting end and expanding is used on the receiving end Keep the bit rate and bandwidth low
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Mu Law
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Speech Companding
The human auditory system is believed to be a logarithmic process in which high amplitude sounds do not require the same resolution as low amplitude sounds. The human ear is more sensitive to quantization noise in small signals than large signals. A-law and -law coding apply a logarithmic quantization function to adjust the data resolution in proportion to the level of the input signal.
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Speech Companding
quantises the difference between the original and the predicted signals, i.e. the difference between successive values. Leads to reduction in the number of bits used per sample over that used for PCM. Using DPCM can reduce the bit rate of voice transmission down to 48 kbps.
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amplitude
1.0
0.5
amplitude
Modulator input
Binary 1
Slicer input
1.0
0.5 0
Binary 1
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DM System
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Demerits
1. 2. Slope overload present. Granular noise present.
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Delta-Sigma Modulation
Alternatively known as Pulse Density modulation or Pulse Frequency modulation Modification of the delta modulation
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Delta-Sigma Modulation
Conventional delta modulation - Quantizer input is an approximation of the derivative of the input message signal m(t). Results in the accumulation of error (noise)
accumulated noise (transmission disturbances) at the receiver (cumulative error).
Possible solution: integrating the message before delta modulation called delta sigma modulation
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Delta-Sigma Modulation
The message signal is defined in its continuous form so pulse modulator contains a hard limiter and a pulse generator to produce a 1-bit encoded signal integration at the tx requires differentiation at the rx side. But: As in conventional DM the message has to be integrated at the final stage this eliminates the need of differentiation here.
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Figure 3.25
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Demerits
Requires sampling rate far in excess of the Nyquist rate 88
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ADM System
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ADM Waveform
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Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) Voice and video signals represented in PCM exhibit high correlation, which means that PCM signals contain redundant information. The result is an inefficient coding. By removing the PCM information redundancy a more efficient coded signal may be obtained.
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DPCM System
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DPCM System
If the prediction is well performed, then the variance of e(k) will be much smaller than the variance of m(k), which results into a smaller number of levels to quantize e(k). DPCM can be described as a predictive coding scheme.
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Type of Predictor
One-tap predictor N-tap predictor
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Demerits
1. 2. High bit rate. Needs the predictor circuit to be used which is complex. 98
Reference
Digital Communication
by Sanjay Sharma
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