Chapter 6 - 1

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used
instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent deformation
occur? What materials are most resistant to permanent
deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we
measure them?
Chapter 6:
Mechanical Properties
Hardness: What is it and how do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 2
FORCE STRESS
STRESS deformation (strain)
Mechanical Properties
Chapter 6 - 3
ASTM Standards for Testing
www.astm.org
(American Society for Testing and Materials)
Chapter 6 - 4
Structural engineers: study the stresses
and their distribution along a body under a load
Material & Metallurgical engineers:
producing/fabricating a material
that meets the service requirements
Need to understand the microstructure
(features)-mechanical properties correlation
Chapter 6 - 5
Elastic means reversible!
Elastic Deformation
2. Small load
F
o
bonds
stretch
1. Initial 3. Unload
return to
initial
F
o
Linear-
elastic
Non-Linear-
elastic
Tensile (or compressive)
load across the long axis of
the material: elongation
(contraction) and positive
(negative) linear strain
Chapter 6 - 6
Plastic means permanent!
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
F
o
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
o
plastic
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
F
o
elastic + plastic
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
o
plastic
Chapter 6 -
Deformation Types
enlongation
compression
shear torsion
Chapter 6 -
8
Stress-Strain Testing (destructive)
Typical tensile test
machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
specimen extensometer
Typical tensile
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge length
Measure
elongations
Measure
Force
Geometrical Factor:
Size (area) of the
specimen is
critical!!!!
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0
100
200
300
L
o
a
d

(
N
)
Compression (mm)


Unpublished results
Chapter 6 - 9
Stress has units:
N/m
2
or lb
f

/in
2
Engineering Stress-Definition
Shear stress, t:
Area, A
o

F
t
F
t
F
s
F
F
F
s
t =
F
s
A
o
Normal stress, o:
original area
before loading

=
F
t
A
o
2
f
2
m
N
or
in
lb
=
Area, A
o
F
t
F
t
specimen
Area
// specimen
Area
Chapter 6 - 10
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
Strain is always
dimensionless.
Engineering Strain
Shear strain:

90
90 -
y
x
= x/y = tan
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
w
o

l
i
l
o
l
o

l
l
o
l / 2
d / 2
e
L

d
w
o
L
o
Chapter 6 - 11
Simple tension: cable

Common States of Stress

o
=
F
A
o
t
=
F
s
A

A
o
F
s
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
Ski lift (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
A
o
= initial cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F F
Chapter 6 - 12
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
o

=
F
A
Simple compression:
Note: compressive
structure member
(( < 0 here).
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
A
o
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
F
Chapter 6 - 13
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:
Pressurized tank
< 0
h
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
Fish under water

z
> 0

u
> 0
Hoop stress

z

q
Chapter 6 - 14
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:
( = E
(
Linear-
elastic
E

F
F
simple
tension
test

Stress & strain are
proportional at low loads
Slope of stress-strain
graph is E
E synonymous to the
stiffness of the material
Chapter 6 - 15
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress-strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Adapted from Fig. 6.7,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
E (ELASTIC
MODULUS):
resistance to
separation of atoms
(=interatomic bonding
forces)
Force-separation curve
E (polymers)<E(metals, ceramics):
bonding types differences
Chapter 6 - 16
Poisson's ratio
metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40
Poisson's Ratio,
lateral strain
longitudinal strain

is unique for homogenous and isotropic material

Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation usually
cause lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice versato
make a positive quantity.
Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions
Poissons ratio is dimensionless, 0 0.5
Chapter 6 - 17
Molecular Level:
On the molecular level, Poissons effect
is caused by slight movements between
molecules and the stretching of
molecular bonds within the material
lattice to accommodate the stress.









anisotropic solids including single crystals
and fibrous composites, physical
properties, including Poisson's ratio,
depend on direction. Poisson's ratio can
have positive or negative values of
arbitrarily large magnitude in anisotropic
materials.

Poisson's ratio
When the bonds elongate in the
direction of load, they shorten in the
other directions. This behavior
multiplied many times throughout the
material lattice is what drives the
phenomenon.
Chapter 6 - 18
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
(
G

= G
Other Elastic Properties
simple
torsion
test
M
M
Special relations for isotropic materials:
2(1+ )
E
G =
3(1 - 2)
E
K
=
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:
Pressure test:
Initial vol =V
o

Vol change = AV
P
P P
P = - K

V
V
o
P
A
V
K
V
o
Unit of stress!
Shear stress-strain
Chapter 6 -
19
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
force
area
=stress
change in length
original length
Departure from linearity (onset of
plastic deformation)
How we measure this point?
Strain offset (0.002)
Chapter 6 - 20
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
E(GPa)
Based on data in Table B.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
10
9
Pa
0.2
8
0.6
1
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
G raphite
Si crystal
Glass - soda
Concrete
Si nitride
Al oxide
PC
Wood( grain)
AFRE( fibers) *
CFRE *
GFRE*
Glass fibers only
Carbon fibers only
A ramid fibers only
Epoxy only
0.4
0.8
2
4
6
10
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
10 0
2 00
6 00
8 00
10 00
1200
4 00
Tin
Cu alloys
Tungsten
<100>
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
PTF E
HDP E
LDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
C FRE( fibers) *
G FRE( fibers)*
G FRE(|| fibers)*
A FRE(|| fibers)*
C FRE(|| fibers)*
Chapter 6 - 21
(at lower temperatures, i.e., T < T
melt
/3)
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
Simple tension test:
engineering stress,
engineering strain,
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

p

plastic strain
Elastic
initially
Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
Amorphous (viscous flow
mechanism) vs. crystalline
materials (slip mechanism)
Chapter 6 - 22
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
When
p
= 0.002
Yield Strength,
y

y
= yield strength

Note: for 2 inch sample

p
= 0.002 = l/l
l=
p
l = 0.004
tensile stress, o
engineering strain,

p
= 0.002
Yielding: where the plastic deformation begins
Chapter 6 - 23
Force stress (normal stress, shear stress)

Elastic vs. Plastic deformation

Stress states (uniaxial, biaxial, tri-axial)

Deformation strains (normal, lateral, shear)

Relating stress to strain: Hookes Law (=)



Chapter 6 - 24
Example:
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a
cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10mm. Determine the
magnitude of the load required to produce a 2.5 x 10^-3 mm
change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic.
Poinsons ratio for brass is 0.34 and Modulus of Elasticity is 97
GPa
Chapter 6 -
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension









Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts
50 MPa (aluminum)- 3000 MPa (steels)
Tensile Stength, TS
Fracture
point
Geometry of
the deformed
sample
Chapter 6 - 26
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Ductility (%ELongation)
Another ductility measure:
(reduction in area)
100 x
A
A A
RA %
o
f o
-
=
x 100
L
L L
EL %
o
o f

=
L
f

A
o

A
f

L
o

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Engineering tensile strain,
E ngineering
tensile
stress,
smaller %EL
larger %EL
Brittle material: little plastic deform.
Before fracture
Important property in design
Chapter 6 - 27
Resilience, U
r

Ability of a material to store energy when deformed
elastically (and release upon unloading)
Energy stored best in the elastic region (shaded area)
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
y y r
2
1
U
c o =

y
d U
r
0

y
2
2E
Area of
stress-strain
curve up to
the yielding
Units: Pa or J/m
3
Chapter 6 - 28
Ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
before fracture
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Toughness
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)
Engineering tensile strain, c
E ngineering
tensile
stress,
small toughness (ceramics)
large toughness (metals)

For a metal to be tough it must display strength and ductility
Units: Pa or J/m
3
Chapter 6 - 29
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface or
resistance to localized plastic deformation.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
apply known force
measure size
of indent after
removing load
d
D
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
easy to machine
steels file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels diamond
Chapter 6 - 30
Advantages:
direct Rockwell hardness
number readout and rapid
testing time, no special skills.
Disadvantages include many
arbitrary non-related scales
and possible effects from the
specimen support, specimen
thickness: 10x indentation
depth
Rockwell Hardness
Chapter 6 - 31
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
Measures difference in depth in Minor-Major Loads



HB = Brinell Hardness
Measures diameter of indent
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
80 HR B
Scale, or
type of indenter
Result of
measurement
Rockwell
hardness
Tensile strength ~hardness
Chapter 6 -
table_06_06a
Chapter 6 -
table_06_06b
Chapter 6 -
Brinell Hardness
hardened steel ball indentor into the
surface of the sample
The ball may be 10, 5 or 1mm in
diameter, the load may be 500-3000
kg, or 500kg increments,
The load, P, is related to the diameter,
D by the relationship P/D
2
The load is applied for a fixed length
of time, (30 secs).
When the indentor is retracted two
diameters of the impression, d
1
and d
2

, are measured using a microscope
Brinell hardness number (BHN) is
found by dividing the load by the
surface area of the impression.
Chapter 6 - 35
Brinell Hardness
Chapter 6 - 36
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 -
surface
film
substrate
500 nm
(a)
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
L
o
a
d
,

P

(

N
)
Displacement, h (nm)


(b)
Surface
topography
Chapter 6 - 38
How a hardness tip looks like?
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
K. Polychronopoulou et. al., Tribol.
Let. 44 (2) (2011) 213-221
pyramidal
conical
Chapter 6 - 39
True Stress & Strain
Note: cross sectional area changes when sample is
stretched

True stress

True strain
i T
A F = o
( )
o i T
ln
( )
( ) +
+
1 ln
1
T
T

dl
l
l
o
l
i

ln
l
i
l
o
i stands for
instantaneous
Chapter 6 -
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.

Design Stress
Calculated stress multiplied by a design factor N (greater
than 1)
N
y
working

Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
Design or Safety Factors
c d
N o o
'
=
Factor of safety, N (if N is too large over design occurs
Large N values result in high materials cost and weight
Safe or Working Stress
Yield stress divided by factor of safety
Chapter 6 - 41
( ) 4 /
000 , 110
2
d
N
t
5
N
y
working

1045 plain
carbon steel:

y
= 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
F
T
= 220,000N
d
L
o
d = 47.5 mm
Design Example 6.1
F = 110,000N
Chapter 6 - 42
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Summary
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches o
y
.