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Reservoir Rocks

Introduction to Log Interpretation

Schlumberger 1999

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Log Interpretation
Interpretation is defined as the action of explaining the meaning of something. Log Interpretation is the explanation of logs b, GR, Resistivity, etc. in terms of well and reservoir parameters, zones, porosity, oil saturation, etc. Log interpretation can provide answers to questions on:

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Why Run Logs

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The Reservoir

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Requirements of a reservoir

To form a reservoir needs - source of organic material (terrestrial or marine) - a suitable combination of heat, pressure and time

- an oxygen free environment

- a suitable basin

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Reservoir Geometry

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Reservoir Rocks

Schlumberger 1999

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Rocks General
There are three major classes of rock: Igneous: (e.g. Granite).

Sedimentary:
(e.g. Sandstone). Metamorphic: (e.g. Marble).

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Rock Cycle

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Igneous Rocks
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust. Originated from the solidification of molten material from deep inside the Earth. There are two types: Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling. Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

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Igneous Rocks and Reservoirs

Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs. Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the world. Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.

Example: Granite Wash - Elk City, Okla., Northern Alberta,CA

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Metamorphic Rocks
2) Metamorphic rocks formed by the action of temperature and/or pressure on sedimentary or igneous rocks. Examples are Marble Hornfels Gneiss formed from limestone from shale or tuff similar to granite but formed by metamorphosis

Field Example: 1. Point Arguello - Monterey Formation is actually layers of fractured Chert and Shale. Oil is in the fractures 2. Long Beach, Calif. - Many SS producers on an Anticline above fractured Metamorphic basement rock 3. Austin, TX eastward - Lava flows of Basalt (Serpentine) from Volcanoes in ancient Gulf of Mexico
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Sedimentary Rocks
The third category is Sedimentary rocks. These are the most important for the oil industry as it contains most of the source rocks and cap rocks and virtually all reservoirs. Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older rocks and are split into two categories Clastic and Non-clastic. Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion, transportation and deposition. Non-clastic rocks from chemical or biological origin and then deposition.
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Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be Shallow or deep water. Marine (sea) and lake or continental. This environment determines many of the reservoir characteristics

Frigg Gas Field North Sea

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Depositional Environments 2
Continental deposits are usually dunes. A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation. A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

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Depositional Environments 3
The depositional characteristics of the rocks lead to some of their properties and that of the reservoir itself. The reservoir rock type clastic or non-clastic. The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is determined by the environment plus subsequent events. The structure of a reservoir can also be determined by deposition; a river, a delta, a reef and so on. This can also lead to permeability and producibility. of these properties are often changed by further events.

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Depositional Environment 4
The environment is not static. Folding and faulting change the structure. Dissolution and fracturing can change the permeability.

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Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. The difference is in the size of the grains.

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Sedimentation
Sediments settle to the bottom of the sedimentary basin.

As the sediments accumulate the temperature and pressure increase expelling water from the sediments.

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Sedimentation 2
Sedimentary muds become sedimentary rocks. Calcareous muds become limestone. Sands become sandstone. Another effect involves both the grains in the matrix and the fluids reacting to create new minerals changing the matrix and porosity. Fluids can also change creating a new set of minerals.

This whole process is called Diagenesis.

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Depositional Environment - Delta

Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers. A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties into the sea. A good example of this is the Mississippi.

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Rivers

Some types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars. The river forms a channel where sands are deposited in layers. Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains which is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood plains at either side. Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be overlain with a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
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Carbonates
Carbonates form a large proportion of all sedimentary rocks.

They consist of: Limestone. Dolomite.

Carbonates usually have an irregular structure.

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Carbonate types
Chalk is a special form of limestone and is formed from the skeletons of small creatures (cocoliths). Dolomite is formed by the replacement of some of thecalcium by a lesser volume of magnesium in limestone by magnesium. Magnesium is smaller than calcium, hence the matrix becomes smaller and more porosity is created. Limestone CaCO3

Dolomite

CaMg(CO3)2

Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite (CaSO4) can also form in these environments.

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Depositional Environment Carbonates

Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features such as:

Reefs.
Lagoons. Shore-bars.
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Rock Properties
Rocks are described by three properties: Porosity quantity of pore space

Permeability - ability of a formation to flow

Matrix -

major constituent of the rock

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Definition of Porosity

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Porosity Sandstones
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the packing arrangement of its grains. The system can be examined using spheres.
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore space accounts for 26% of the total volume.

With a Cubic packing arrangement, the pore space fills 47% of the total volume.

In practice, the theoretical value is rarely reached because: a) the grains are not perfectly round, and b) the grains are not of uniform size.
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Porosity and Grain Size

A rock can be made up of small grains or large grains but have the same porosity. Porosity depends on grain packing, not the grain size.

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Diagenesis
The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock such as: Chemical changes. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example is the replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by magnesium to form dolomite.

Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

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Carbonate Porosity Types 1

Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified into a number of types: Interparticle porosity: Each grain is separated, giving a similar pore space arrangement as sandstone. Intergranular porosity: Pore space is created inside the individual grains which are interconnected. Intercrystalline porosity: Produced by spaces between carbonate crystals. Mouldic porosity: Pores created by the dissolution of shells, etc.

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Carbonate Porosity Types 2

Fracture porosity: Pore spacing created by the cracking of the rock fabric.

Channel porosity: Similar to fracture porosity but larger.

Vuggy porosity: Created by the dissolution of fragments, but unconnected.

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Carbonate Porosity
Intergranular porosity is called "primary porosity".

Porosity created after deposition is called "secondary porosity".

The latter is in two forms: Fractures Vugs.

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Fractures
Fractures are caused when a rigid rock is strained beyond its elastic limit - it cracks. The forces causing it to break are in a constant direction, hence all the fractures are also aligned. Fractures are an important source of permeability in low porosity carbonate reservoirs.

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Vugs

Vugs are defined as non-connected pore space. They do not contribute to the producible fluid total. Vugs are caused by the dissolution of soluble material such as shell fragments after the rock has been formed. They usually have irregular shapes.

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Permeability Definition
The rate of flow of a liquid through a formation depends on: The pressure drop. The viscosity of the fluid. The permeability.
The pressure drop is a reservoir property. The viscosity is a fluid property. The permeability is a measure of the ease at which a fluid can flow through a formation. Relationships exist between permeability and porosity for given formations, although they are not universal. A rock must have porosity to have any permeability. The unit of measurement is the Darcy. Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in millidarcies, (md).
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Darcy Experiment
The flow of fluid of viscosity m through a porous medium was first investigated in 1856 by Henri Darcy. He related the flow of water through a unit volume of sand to the pressure gradient across it. In the experiment the flow rate can be changed by altering the parameters as follows:

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Darcy Law

K = permeability, in Darcies. L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres. Q = flow rate in centimetres3 / sec. P1, P2 = pressures in bars. A = surface area, in cm2. = viscocity in centipoise.

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Permeability and Rocks

In formations with large grains, the permeability is high and the flow rate larger.

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Permeability and Rocks 2

In a rock with small grains the permeability is less and the flow lower.

Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a large effect on permeability.

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Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks need two properties to be successful: Pore spaces able to retain hydrocarbon. Permeability which allows the fluid to move.

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Clastic Reservoirs
Sandstone usually has regular grains; and is referred to as a grainstone. Porosity Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of grains. Permeability Determined mainly by grain size and packing, connectivity and shale content.

Fractures may be present.

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Carbonate Reservoirs
Carbonates normally have a very irregular structure. Porosity: Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.). Permeability: Determined by deposition and postdeposition events, fractures.

Fractures can be very important in carbonate reservoirs.

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Cap Rock
A reservoir needs a cap rock.

Impermeable cap rock keeps the fluids trapped in the reservoir. It must have zero permeability. Some examples are: Shales. Evaporites such as salt or anhyhdrite. Zero-porosity carbonates.
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Source Rocks
Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas and lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom where they form organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments. These "muds" are in a reducing environment or "kitchen", which strips oxygen from the sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon. The sediments are compacted to form organicrich rocks with very low permeability. The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby porous rocks, displacing the original formation water.

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Hydrocarbon Migration

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages: Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous
rock. This is a complex process and not fully understood. It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.

Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.

This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics through a continuous water-filled pore system. It can take place over large distances.
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Rock Classification
Clastics Rock type Conglomerate Sandstone Siltstone Shale Non-Clastics Rock type

Particle diameter Pebbles Sand Silt Clay 2 - 64mm .06 - 2mm .003 - .06mm <.003mm

Composition

Limestone Dolomite Salt Anhydrite Gypsum Coal

CaCO3 CaMg(CO3)2 NaCl CaSO4 CaSO4.2H2O Carbon

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Reservoir Structure
There are many other types of structure. The criteria for a structure is that it must have: Closure, i.e. the fluids are unable to escape. Be large enough to be economical.

The exact form of the reservoir depends on the depositional environment and post depositional events such as foldings and faulting.

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Traps General

Ghawar Oilfield - Saudi Arabia- Ls - 145 mi x 13 mi wide x260 ft produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls Gasharan Oilfield - Iran - Ls - 6000ft. Net pay total 8.5 B bbls
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Structural Traps
The simplest form of trap is a dome. This is created by upward movement or folding of underlying sediments.

An anticline is another form of simple trap. This is formed by the folding of layers of sedimentary rock.

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Fault Traps
Faults occur when the rock shears due to stresses. Reservoirs often form in these fault zones. A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids due to its location alongside an impermeable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an impermeable bed. Faults are found in conjunction with other structures such as anticlines, domes and salt domes.

Drag Faults - Wyoming, most Rocky Mountains

Normal Faults - Nigeria, Hibenia (E. Canada), Vicksburg Trends (Victoria, TX)
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Salt Dome Trap

Salt Dome traps are caused when "plastic" salt is forced upwards. The salt dome pierces through layers and compresses rocks above. This results in the formation of various traps: In domes created by formations pushed up by the salt. Along the flanks and below the overhang in porous rock abutting on the impermeable salt itself.

Example: Gulf of Mexico, Spindletop,TX, North Sea (Ekofisk Dome with fractured Chalk as reservoir rock)
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Stratigraphic Traps
Michigan - Belle River Mills Devonian reefs (Barriers and Atolls) - Alberta CA. (Leduc & Redwater) Midland Basin &Delaware Basin of West TX - Barrier Reefs

Point Bars - Powder River Basin, WY, Clinton SS in Western Ok,

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Reservoir Mapping

Reservoir contours are usually measured to be below Mean Sea Level (MSL). They can represent either the reservoir formation structure or fluid layers.
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Wireline Well Logging

The Wellbore Wellbore Fluids Volumes Under Investigation Basic Interpretation Technique Interpretation Procedures

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Measuring in the borehole

The formation to be measured is masked by the borehole. The borehole contains fluids and is of an irregular shape.
Formatio n to be Measu red

Sensors + El ectroni cs

Borehol e

The sensor has to be able to measure the formation property accurately and send the information to surface.

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Borehole -Size and Shape

Perfect shape no problems except if very large.

Ovalised hole; will give problems for some tools. Best to run two calipers.

Irregular borehole, gives problems for most tools.

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Tool Positioning - 1
Some tools are run centralised in the borehole in order to measure properly. These include laterolog and sonic devices. Special centralisers are put on the tool.
Formatio n to be Measu red

Centra li sed Tool

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Tool Positioning - 2

Some tools are run eccentred, pushed, against the borehole wall.
Eccentral ised Tool

In some cases this is done with an eccentraliser. In other cases a caliper arm does this job.

Formatio n to be Measu red

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Tool Positioning - 3
Some tools are run with stand-offs to position them at a fixed distance from the wall.
Tool with Stand-offs

The induction family are usually run in this manner.

Formatio n to be Measu red

Stand-Offs

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Borehole fluids 2
Oil based mud will not allow current to pass so electrical logs will not work. Foam and air muds will not transmit sonics signals. Neutron tools are also affected.

Mud salinity affects electrical and induction tools in different manners.

Additives such as barite affect density, gamma ray and photoelectric effect measurements. The mud type, salinity and additives must be known so that the appropriate corrections can be made.

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Borehole - Temperature
Increasing temperature affects the measurements in some tools. The most affected is the thermal neutron devices.

High temperature also affect the performance of the electronics in the tools.

Temperature affects the mud resistivity (it decreases with increasing temperature).

Temperature is measured during each logging run.

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Volume of Investigation

The tool shown here measures all around the borehole. It is omni-directional.

An example of this type of tool is the Gamma Ray.

Some of the signal is in the borehole. Most comes from the invaded zone.
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Volume of Investigation 3
Formati on to be Measured

Vi rgi n Zone

Vi rgi n Zone

Vol ume i nvesti gate d by the too l

Invaded Zone

This type of measurement has the sensor facing in one direction only.
Examples of this are the neutron porosity and bulk density measurements.

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Vertical Wells
In vertical wells, with homogeneous layers all types of tool are reading in the same formation.

In horizontal (or highly deviated) wells the deep reading resistivity tools may read a different layer to the shallow reading tools.

In addition the omni-directional tools (e.g. GR) may read different layers from the single direction devices.

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Drilling Objective

A well is drilled to a pre-determined objective:

An exploration well targets a suspected reservoir.

An appraisal well evaluates a discovery.

A development well is used for production.

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Pre-Drilling Knowledge Exploration

Structural information obtained from surface seismic data. Rough geological information can be provided by nearby wells or outcrops. Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.

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Tool History
1927 - First electrical log recorded. 1930s - SP, Short Normal, Long Normal and Long Lateral combined, Core Sample Taker. 1940s - Gamma Ray and Neutron, 3-arm Dipmeter using SP, then electrical measurements, Induction tool. 1950s - Microlog tool, Laterolog tool, Sonic tool, Formation Tester. 1960s - Formation Density tool. 1970s - Dual Spacing Neutrons, Advanced Dipmeters, Computerised Surface Systems, Repeat Tester tools, Electromagnetic Propagation tool. 1980s - Resistivity Imaging tool, Advanced Sonic tools 1990s - Advanced testing tools, Induction imaging tools, Azimuthal Laterolog tools, Ultrasonic imaging tools, Epithermal porosity tools, Magnetic resonance tools

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Early Interpretation
Early resistivity logs were used to find possible producing zones. high resistivity = hydrocarbon

SP was used to define permeable beds, compute Rw and determine shaliness. Resistivity was also used to determine "porosity".

Archie developed the relationship between resistivity, porosity and saturation.

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Basic Log Response

SP Resistivity Porosity

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Interpretation Procedure 2
Gamma Ray Resistivity Porosity

Hydrocarbon

Water

Shale

Water

The simplest evaluation technique consists of recognising the hydrocarbon zone using the porosity and resistivity curves
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Interpretation Procedure

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Zoning
Zoning is the first step in any interpretation procedure. During zoning, the logs are split into intervals of: 1) Porous and non-porous rock. 2) Permeable and non-permeable rock. 3) Shaly and clean rock. 4) Good hole conditions and bad hole conditions. 5) Good logs and bad logs.

Zoning Tools: SP. GR. Caliper. Neutron Density-Pef. Resistivity.

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