The fundamentals of RADAR.

Basic radar principles and general

characteristics.
Lieutenant JG
SERGIU ERBAN
Introduction
RADAR is a word derived from RAdio Detection And Ranging and applies
to electronic equipment designed for detecting and tracking objects (targets) at
considerable distances.
It is of great practical value to the navigator in the piloting waters, being used
for:
locating navigational aids;
performing radar navigation;
tracking other vessels in the vicinity;
avoiding risk of collision.
The basic principle of radar is to determine the range to an object or "target"
by measuring the time required for an extremely short pulse of very high radio
frequency, transmitted as a radio wave, to travel from a reference source (own
ship) to a target and return as a reflected echo.
Such measurements can be converted into lines of position (LOPs) comprised
of circles with radius equal to the distance to the object.

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Since marine radars use directional antennae, they can also determine an
objects bearing. The radar antenna (called the scanner) rotates to scan the
entire surrounding area. Bearings to the target are determined by the orientation
of the antenna at the moment when the reflected echo returns.
However, due to its design, a radars bearing measurement is less accurate than
its distance measurement. Understanding this concept is crucial to ensure the
optimal employment of the radar for safe navigation.
Once time and bearing are measured, these targets or echoes are calculated and
displayed on the radar display. The radar display provides the operator a birds
eye view of where other targets are relative to own ship.
There are two groups of radio frequencies allocated by international standards
for use by civil marine radar systems:
X-band: wavelength of 3 cm, frequency range of 9300 to 9500 MHz;
S-band: wavelength of 10 cm, frequency range of 2900 to 3100 MHz.
A fundamental requirement of marine radar is that of directional transmission
and reception, which is achieved by producing a narrow horizontal beam.
The radio-frequency energy transmitted by pulse-modulated radars consists of a
series of equally spaced pulses, frequently having durations of about 1
microsecond or less, separated by very short but relatively long periods during
which no energy is transmitted.

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A brief history
1865 The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell presents his Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field (description of the electromagnetic waves and their
propagation). He demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through
space in the form of waves and at the constant speed of light.
1886 The German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovered
electromagnetic waves, thus demonstrating the Maxwell theory.
1904 The German engineer Christian Hlsmeyer invents the
telemobilscope for a traffic monitoring on the water in poor visibility. This is
the first practical radar test.
1922 The American electrical engineers Albert H. Taylor and Leo C.
Young of the Naval Research Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the
first time.
1931 A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are used parabolic dishes with
horn radiators.
1930s During the WWII, different radar equipments are developed in the USA,
Russia, Germany, France and Japan.
1939 British physicist created the magnetron oscillator which operated at
higher frequencies, that made microwave radar a reality, marking the
beginning of modern radar.
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Basic block diagram of a Radar
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The functional breakdown of a basic pulse-modulated radar system usually
includes six major components. The functions of the components may be
summarized as follows:
1. The power supply furnishes all AC and DC voltages necessary for the
operation of the system components.
2. The modulator produces the synchronizing signals that trigger the
transmitter (magnetron) the required number of pulses per second, at same
frequency and proper length between them. It also triggers the indicator
sweep and coordinates the other associated circuits.
3. The transmitter generates the radio-frequency energy in the form of short
powerful pulses through the magnetron.
4. The antenna system, that continuously rotates (10 24 rpm), takes the
radio-frequency energy from the transmitter, radiates it in a highly
directional beam, receives any returning echoes, and passes these echoes to
the receiver.
5. The receiver amplifies the weak radio-frequency pulses (echoes) returned
by a target and reproduces them as video pulses passed to the indicator.
6. The indicator (screen) produces a visual indication of the echo pulses in a
manner that furnishes the desired information.
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Components
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The type of scanner used by most vessels is the slotted array, an antenna with a
series of slits spaced at suitable intervals and angles from which radio pulses are
transmitted.
The length of the array affects horizontal beamwidth, and thus the radars ability
to determine target bearing. The longer the array, the more accurately the radar
can determine bearing.
Scanner directivity is a measure of the two beamwidths:
horizontal beamwidth;
vertical beamwidth.
The narrower the horizontal beamwidth the sharper the beam. The vertical
beamwidth should be wide; it is typically 20 to 25 degrees. The main reason for a
wide vertical beamwidth is to ensure the ability to display a target while own ship
is pitching and rolling.
Radio pulses are emitted from the scanner in a certain direction. When the
pulse strikes an object such as a ship or island some of the energy returns to the
scanner. The direction in which the scanner is pointing when the reflection is
received is the direction of the target causing the reflection.
Since radio waves travel at a near-constant speed, the time required for the
reflected echo to return to the scanner is a measure of the range to the target.

How radar determines range
The distance is determined from the running time of the high-frequency
transmitted signal and the propagation c
0
.
Since the waves travel to a target and back, the round trip time is dividing by
two in order to obtain the time the wave took to reach the target. Therefore the
following formula arises for the range:


where: c
0
speed of light = 3 10
8 m
/
s
, t measured running time [s], R range [m]
The distances are expressed in kilometers or nautical miles.

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Basic principles of RADAR
How radar determines bearing
By measuring the direction in which the antenna is pointing when the echo is
received, azimuth angle from the radar to the object or target can be
determined.
The angular determination of the target is determined by the directivity of the
antenna. Directivity is the ability of the antenna to concentrate the transmitted
energy in a particular direction.
The True Bearing (referenced to true north) of a radar target is the angle
between true north and a line pointed directly at the target. This angle is
measured in the horizontal plane and in a clockwise direction from true north.
The bearing angle to the radar target may also be measured in a clockwise
direction from the centerline of own ship and is referred to as the relative
bearing.
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How the radar displays targets

Radar targets are displayed on what is called a Plan Position Indicator or PPI.
This display is essentially a polar diagram, with the transmitting ships position
at the center.
Images of target echoes are received and displayed at their relative bearing,
and at their distances from the PPI center. Early model radars displayed targets
and possess few features such as heading marks and range rings. To view the
display, a viewing hood was required to block out extraneous light.
Almost all late model radars use Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or daylight
bright Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays. These types of displays provide
steady, bright, non-fading radar echoes in monochrome or color depending on
model.
Bearing on the PPI scope is indicated around the periphery of the screen. On
ships having a gyro compass the display has a gyro input and the presentation
is oriented so that the true north lies under the 000 degrees mark.
As the antenna rotates a thin line sweeps around the center of the screen and
illuminates or "paints" any objects within the range of the radarscope. The
presentation of objects is called a "pip" or "blip".
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Radar range
Atmospheric conditions and target shape, material and aspect slightly affect
radar range. However, radar range is generally calculated as follows.
D is the distance from the scanner to the target horizon. Under normal
atmospheric conditions, this distance is 6% greater than the optical horizon.
This is because radio waves bend or refract slightly by atmospheric change.
The higher the scanner or target is above the surface, the longer the detection
range.




Unusual propagation conditions
Air ducts created by atmospheric conditions can affect radio pulse propagation
and thus radar range. When the radio pulse is bent downward, radio pulses can
travel great distances thereby increasing the ranges at which targets can be
detected. This is called super-refraction.
The opposite condition, in which radar waves bend upward and decrease the
range at which targets can be detected, is called sub-refraction.

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Radar Resolution: describes the radars ability to distinctly display two radar
targets which are close to each other.
Radar has two types of resolution: range and bearing.
Bearing resolution is a measure of the capability of the radar to display as
separate targets the echoes received from two targets that are at the same range
and close together. The principal factor affecting bearing resolution is horizontal
beamwidth. The narrower the horizontal beamwidth the better the bearing
resolution.
Basic RADAR terms
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Range resolution is a measure of the capability of the radar to display as
separate pips the echoes received from two targets that are on the same bearing
and are close together. The main factor that affects range resolution is pulse length.
A short pulse length gives better range resolution than a long pulse length.
Practically, a 0.08 microsecond pulse offers the discrimination better than 25
meters.















Generally, it is used a short pulse length on short ranges for better range
resolution, and a long pulse length on long ranges for longer range detection.
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Beamwidth: Beamwidth is the
angular width, horizontal or vertical,
of the path taken by the radar pulse.
Horizontal beamwidth ranges from
0.75 to 5 degrees, and vertical
beamwidth from 20 to 25 degrees.
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Pulse Repetition Rate: Pulse repetition rate is the number of radio pulses
transmitted in one second. It is automatically determined by pulse length and
detecting range. For short ranges, pulsel ength is short and the pulse repetition
rate is high. For long ranges, pulse length is long and the pulse repetition rate is
low.
Minimum detectable range: This is the minimum range at which a target is
detectable by the radar. It is determined by scanner height, vertical beamwidth,
blind sector within the scanner beam and pulse length.
Maximum detectable range and output power: Doubling the output power of
a typical radar raises the maximum detectable range by only 19 percent. In the
reverse case, halving the output power lowers the maximum detectable range by
16 percent. While you can increase the maximum detectable range by using a
high output power radar, a better (and more economical) way to do it would be to
mount the scanner as high as possible above the waterline and/or utilize a longer
antenna to increase horizontal beamwidth.
RADAR = RAdio Detection And Ranging
Basic principle: range determination to an object by measuring the
time required for an extremely short pulse of very high radio
frequency, transmitted as a radio wave, to travel from own ship to a
target and return as a reflected echo.
A radars bearing measurement is less accurate than its distance
measurement.
A basic pulse-modulated radar system usually includes six major
components:
power supply
modulator
transmitter
antenna system
receiver
indicator


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Conclusions
Questions ?
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