Imperfections in Solid

Materials
R. Lindeke
ENGR 2110

In our pervious Lecture when

discussing Crystals we
ASSUMED PERFECT ORDER

In real materials we find:

Crystalline Defects or lattice irregularity
Most real materials have one or more errors in perfection
with dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter to many
lattice sites
Defects can be classification:
1. according to geometry
(point, line or plane)
2. dimensions of the defect

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the solidification mechanisms?
What types of defects arise in solids?

Can the number and type of defects be varied

and controlled?
How do defects affect material properties?
Are defects always undesirable?

Imperfections in Solids
Solidification- result of casting of molten material
2 steps
Nuclei form
Nuclei grow to form crystals grain structure

Start with a molten material all liquid

nuclei
liquid

crystals growing

grain structure
Adapted from Fig.4.14 (b), Callister 7e.

Crystals grow until they meet each other

Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries
regions between crystals
transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
slightly disordered
low density in grain
boundaries
high mobility
high diffusivity
high chemical reactivity
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.

Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow
Columnar in
area with less
undercooling

Shell of
equiaxed grains
due to rapid
cooling (greater
T) near wall

Adapted from Fig. 4.12, Callister 7e.

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

Point Defects
Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
of planes

Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

selfinterstitial
distortion
of planes

SELF-INTERSTITIAL: very rare occurrence

This defect occurs when an atom from the crystal occupies

the small void space (interstitial site) that under
ordinary circumstances is not occupied.
In metals, a self-interstitial introduces relatively (very!)
large distortions in the surrounding lattice.

POINT DEFECTS
The simplest of the point defect is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site.
All crystalline solids contain vacancies.

Principles of thermodynamics is used explain the necessity of the

existence of vacancies in crystalline solids.
The presence of vacancies increases the entropy (randomness) of
the crystal.
The equilibrium number of vacancies for a given quantity of
material depends on and increases with temperature as
follows:
Total no. of atomic sites

Energy required to form vacancy

Equilibrium no. of vacancies

Nv= N exp(-Qv/kT)

T = absolute temperature in Kelvin

k = gas or Boltzmanns constant

Measuring Activation Energy

-Q
Nv
v

exp
=
k T
N

We can get Qv from

an experiment.
Measure this...

Replot it...

Nv

ln

Nv
N

note:
N

N A El
AEl

slope
-Qv /k

exponential
dependence!

defect concentration

1/ T

Example Problem 4.1

Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic meter for copper at
1000C. The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the atomic weight and
density (at 1000 C) for copper are 63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3, respectively.
Solution.
Use equation 4.1. Find the value of N, number of atomic sites per cubic meter for
copper, from its atomic weight Acu, its density, and Avogadros number NA.

N A (6.023x1023 atoms / mol )(8.4 g / cm3 )(106 cm3 / m3 )

N

ACu
63.5 g / mol
8.0x1028 atoms / m3
Thus, the number of vacanciesat 1000 C (1273K ) ie equal to

Continuing:
Qv
N v N exp
kT

(
0
.
9
eV

(8.0x10 atoms / m ) exp

(8.62 x10-5 eV / K )(1273K )

28

2.2x1025 vacancies/m3
And Note: for MOST MATERIALS just below
Tm Nv/N = 10-4
Here: 0.0022/8 = .000275 = 2.75*10-4

Point Defects in Alloys

Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):

Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR
Substitutional solid soln.
(e.g., Cu in Ni)

Interstitial solid soln.

(e.g., C in Fe)

Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new

phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.

Imperfections in Solids
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
Hume Rothery rules
1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
2. Proximity in periodic table
i.e., similar electronegativities

3. Same crystal structure for pure metals

4. Valency equality
All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower
valency (it provides more electrons to the cloud)

Imperfections in Solids
Application of HumeRothery rules Solid
Solutions
Element
Atomic Crystal
ElectroRadius Structure
(nm)

1. Would you predict

more Al or Ag
to dissolve in Zn?
More Al because size is closer and val. Is
higher but not too much FCC in HCP

2. More Zn or Al
in Cu?
Surely Zn since size is closer thus
causing lower distortion (4% vs 12%)

Cu
C
H
O
Ag
Al
Co
Cr
Fe
Ni
Pd
Zn

0.1278
0.071
0.046
0.060
0.1445
0.1431
0.1253
0.1249
0.1241
0.1246
0.1376
0.1332

Valence

negativity

FCC

1.9

+2

FCC
FCC
HCP
BCC
BCC
FCC
FCC
HCP

1.9
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.8
2.2
1.6

+1
+3
+2
+3
+2
+2
+2
+2

Table on p. 106, Callister 7e.

Imperfections in Solids
Specification of composition
weight percent

C1

m1
x 100
m1 m2

m1 = mass of component 1

atom percent

C1'

n m1
x 100
n m1 n m 2

nm1 = number of moles of component 1

Wt. % and At. % -- An example

Typically we work with a basis of 100g or 1000g
given: by weight -- 60% Cu, 40% Ni alloy
600 g
nCu
9.44m
63.55 g / m
400 g
nNi
6.82m
58.69 g / m
9.44
'
CCu
.581 or 58.1%
9.44 6.82
6.82
'
CNi
.419 or 41.9%
9.44 6.82

Converting Between: (Wt% and At%)

C1 A2
C
100
C1 A2 C2 A1
'
1

C2 A1
C
100
C1 A2 C2 A1
'
2

C A1
C1 '
100
'
C1 A1 C2 A2

Converts from
wt% to At% (Ai is
atomic weight)

'
1

C A2
C2 '
100
'
C1 A1 C2 A2
'
2

Converts from
at% to wt% (Ai is
atomic weight)

Determining Mass of a Species per Volume

C
1
C1"
C1 C2

1
2

C
2
C2"
C1 C2

1
2

103

103

i is density of pure
element in g/cc
Computed this way,
gives concentration
of speciesi in kg/m3 of
the bulk mixture
(alloy)

Line Defects
Are called Dislocations:
And:
slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
this motion produces permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

before deformation

after tensile elongation

Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.

slip steps which are

the physical
evidence of large
numbers of
dislocations
slipping along the
close packed plane
{0001}

Linear Defects (Dislocations)

Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are
misaligned

Edge dislocation:
extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
b (the bergers vector) is (perpendicular) to dislocation
line

Screw dislocation:
spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
b is (parallel) to dislocation line

Burgers vector, b: is a measure of lattice distortion and is

measured as a distance along the close packed directions in
the lattice

Edge Dislocation
Edge Dislocation

Fig. 4.3, Callister 7e.

Motion of Edge Dislocation

Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here).
Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.

http://www.wiley.com/
college/callister/CL_E
WSTU01031_S/vmse
/dislocations.htm

Atomic view of edge

dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Screw Dislocations

Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b

(b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister 7e.

Edge, Screw, and Mixed Dislocations

Mixed

Edge
Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister 7e.

Screw

Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in (T) electron micrographs

Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.

Dislocations & Crystal Structures

Structure: close-packed
planes & directions
are preferred.
close-packed plane (bottom)

view onto two

close-packed
planes.

close-packed directions
close-packed plane (top)

Comparison among crystal structures:

FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none super-close many near close

Specimens that
were tensile
tested.

Mg (HCP)
tensile direction

Al (FCC)

Planar Defects in Solids

One case is a twin boundary (plane)
Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the
twinning plane.

Adapted from Fig. 4.9, Callister 7e.

Stacking faults
For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
Ex: ABCABABC

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Applications
To Examine the structural elements and defects that influence the
properties of materials.
Ensure that the associations between the properties and structure (and
defects) are properly understood.
Predict the properties of materials once these relationships have been
established.

Structural elements exist in macroscopic

and microscopic dimensions

MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION: The shape and average size or

diameter of the grains for a polycrystalline specimen are large
enough to observe with the unaided eye.

Optical Microscopy
Useful up to 2000X magnification (?).
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation since different Xtal planes have different
reactivity.
crystallographic planes
Adapted from Fig. 4.13(b) and (c), Callister
7e. (Fig. 4.13(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.

Micrograph of
brass (a Cu-Zn alloy)

0.75mm

Optical Microscopy
Grain boundaries...
are planer imperfections,
are more susceptible
to etching,
may be revealed as
dark lines,
relate change in crystal
orientation across
boundary.

polished surface

(a)

surface groove
grain boundary
Adapted from Fig. 4.14(a)
and (b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C. Brady,
the National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC
[now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

ASTM grain
size number

N = 2n-1
number of grains/in2
at 100x
magnification

Fe-Cr alloy
(b)

GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION

The grain size is often determined when the properties of
a polycrystalline material are under consideration. The
grain size has a significant impact of strength and
response to further processing

Linear Intercept method

Straight lines are drawn through several
photomicrographs that show the grain
structure.
The grains intersected by each line segment are
counted
The line length is then divided by an average
number of grains intersected.
The average grain diameter is found by dividing this
result by the linear magnification of the
photomicrographs.

ASTM (American Society for testing and Materials)

ASTM has prepared several standard comparison charts, all having different
average grain sizes. To each is assigned a number from 1 to 10, which is termed
the grain size number; the larger this number, the smaller the grains.

VISUAL CHARTS (@100x) each with a number

Quick and easy used for steel
Grain size no.

No. of grains/square inch

N = 2 n-1

NOTE: The ASTM grain size is related (or relates)

a grain area AT 100x MAGNIFICATION

Determining Grain Size, using a micrograph

taken at 300x
We count 14 grains
in a 1 in2 area on
the image
The report ASTM
grain size we need
N at 100x not 300x
We need a
conversion method!

M
n -1
NM
2
100
M is mag. of image
N M is measured grain count at M
now solve for n:
log( N M ) 2 log M - log 100 n - 1 log 2

log N m 2 log M - 4
n
1
log 2
n

log 14 2 log 300 - 4

1 7.98 8
0.301

For this same material, how many Grains

would I expect /in2 at 100x?

N 2

n -1

8 -1

128 grains/in

Now, how many grain would I expect at 50x?

2

100
100
NM 2
128*

M
50
2
2
N M 128* 2 512 grains/in
8 -1

At 100x
Number of Grains/in2

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

6
Grain Size number (n)

10

12

Electron Microscopes
beam of electrons of
shorter wave-length
(0.003nm) (when
accelerated across large
voltage drop)
Image formed with
Magnetic lenses

High resolutions and

magnification (up to
50,000x SEM); (TEM up
to 1,000,000x)

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM)

Uses a moveable Probe of very small diameter
to move over a surface
Atoms can be arranged and imaged!
Photos produced from
the work of C.P. Lutz,
Zeppenfeld, and D.M.
Eigler. Reprinted with
permission from
International Business
Machines Corporation,
copyright 1995.

Carbon monoxide
molecules arranged
on a platinum (111)
surface.

Iron atoms arranged

on a copper (111)
surface. These Kanji
characters represent
the word atom.

Summary
Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.
The number and type of defects can be varied and
controlled
T controls vacancy conc.
amount of plastic deformation controls # of dislocations
Weight of charge materials determine concentration of
substitutional or interstitial point defects

Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain boundaries

control crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending on whether
plastic deformation is desirable or not.
Inclusions can be intention for alloy development