Discourse (Semantics)

Analysis
by Drs. I Wayan Suarnajaya, M.A., Ph.D

The topics covered:

1. Discourse as an aspect of linguistics
2. The concept of discourse analysis (DA); the
notions of discourse analysis
3. Language as action and affiliation
4. Politics in language in use
5. Theory and method in discourse analysis
6. Discourse Semantics Analysis (DA based on
Systemic Functional Linguistics perspectives
7. Language and Social Context
8. Register categories, language structures, and
functional categories (meaning potentials)

9. Register categories: Field, Tenor, Mode

10. Transitivity Structure
11. Mood Structure
12. Theme Structure

Final Project: Analyzing two different texts of the

same topic/theme, using systemic functional
linguistics theory as the basis of the analysis

References
Berry, Margaret, at.al, 1996, Meaning and Form: Systemic
Functional Interpretations, Norwood: Alex Publishing
Corporation
Butler, Christopher S., 1985, Systemic Linguistics Theory and
applications, London: Batsford
Eggins, Suzanne, 1994, An Introduction to Systemic Functional
Linguistics, London: Pinter
Halliday, M A K., 1985, An Introduction to Functional Grammar,
London: Edward Arnold
Paul Gee, James, 1999, an introduction to Discourse Analysis
Theory and Method, New York: Routledge
Van Dijk,Teun A., 1997, Discourse as Structure and Process:
Discourse Studies - A Multidisciplinary Introduction,
London, SAGE Publications
Van Dijk,Teun A., 1997, Discourse as Social Interaction - A
Multidisciplinary Introduction, London, SAGE Publications

Discourse as an Aspect of Linguistics

Units of Language

Aspects of Linguistics

Texts

Discourse

Sentences
Clauses

Syntax

Phrases
Words

Morphology

Phonemes

Phonology

The Other Aspects of Linguistics

Semantics

Pragmatics
Language
Psycholinguistics
Psychology
Language
Sociolinguistics
Sociology

A.

The Concepts of Discourse

Analysis

Discourse refers to a general term for

examples of language use language
which has been produced as the result of
an act of communication.

Grammar refers the rules

a language uses to form
grammatical units such as
phrase, clause, and
sentence.

Other notions of Discourse

(Analysis):
Discourse refers to larger units of
language such as
paragraphs,conversations, and
interviews

Discourse Analysis is sometimes

used to refer to the study of both
written and spoken discourse.
To some researchers, Discourse
Analysis is used to refer to the
study of spoken discourse

Continue
To some researchers, Discourse
Analysis is used to refer to the study of
spoken discourse (conversational
analysis)

Text Linguistics refers to the study of

written discourse,
Discourse Analysis: as the study how
sentences in spoken and written
language form larger meaningful units
such as paragraphs, conversations, and
interviews.

Continue .........
The definition indicates that discourse
analysis deals with such things as:
a) How the choice of articles, pronouns,
and tenses affects the structure of
discourse.
b) The relationship between utterances in a
discourse

c) The moves made by the speakers to

introduce a new topic, change the topic,
or assert a high role relationship to other
participants.

continue.....
Discourse Analysis is the analysis of spoken and
written language as it is used to enact social and
cultural perspectives and identities.
The analysis is concerned with both a theory of
language in use as well as a method of
research made up of a set of tools of enquiry and
strategies for using them.
Discourse analysis is then an analysis of language
attempting to understand how language works in
a fully intergrated way as simultaneously a
mental, social, cultural, institutional, and political
phenomenon.

Language as action and

affiliation
People think that the primary purpose
of human language is to
communicate information or to
exchange information. But,
language actually serves a great
many functions, basically classified
into two, namely:
a. To scaffold the performance of
social activities

Continue .......
b. To scaffold human affiliation within
cultures and social groups and
institutions. Cultures, social groups,
and institutions shape social
activities. They also get produced,
reproduced, and transformed
through human activities.

Discourse Analys is therefore

concerned with a theory and a
method for studying how the

Contnue .......
details of language get recruited on
site to pull off specific social activities
and social identities memberships
in various social groups, cultures, and
institution.
Language in use is everywhere and
always political.

Politics in language in use?

It refers to anything and any place where
human social interactions and relationships
have implications for how social goods are
or ought to be distributed. Social goods
mean anything that a group of people
believe to be a source of power, status, or
worth academic intelligence, money,
control, possessions, verbal abilities, age,
wisdom, knowledge, technology, literacy,
and morality.

Continue
When speaking, a particular perspective on what the
world is like is always considered. This involves in
taking perspectives on: what is normal, what is
acceptable and not, what is right and not, what is real
and not, what is the way things are and not, What is
the ways things ought to be and not, what is possible
and not, what people like us or people like them do
and dont do. These are all also perspectives on how
we believe, wish, or act as if potential social goods
are or ought to be distributed.

Theory and method in discourse analysis

An approach to discourse analysis
refers to the analysis of language as
it is used to enact activities,
perspectives, and identities. The
analysis, in this case, is partly
concerned with a method of research.
It should be noted that any method
always goes with a theory, in the
sense that they cannot be separated.

A method of reseaech is a way to

investigate some particular domain,
which is in the form of language in-use.
The study of a domain requires a theory
of what the domain is. In discourse
analysis, the theory of domain can be in
the form of a theory about the nature of
language in-use.

Systemic Functional Linguistics

Language and Social Context

Language

Social Context

a. Context of Culture (Genre)

b. Context of Situation (Register)
Field, Tenor, and Mode
The link of the three register categories to
clause structure/the structure of language

N0.

Register
Structure of
Categories Language

Meaning Potentials
(Functional Categories)

1.

Field

Transitivity

Experiential Meaning

2.

Tenor

Mood

Interpersonal Meaning

3.

Mode

Theme

Textual Meaning

Mood Structure: the grammar of

interpersonal meaning
Speech role, speech function, and mood type.

Speech role
Giving:

- John is an English teacher

Demanding: - Can I read your novel?

Commodity being exchanged: the exchange of
information and the exchange of goods and
services.

Speech role

Commodity
Exchanged

Speech Function

Speech role
Giving

Demanding

Commodity
Exchanged

Speech
Function

Information

Statement

Goods and Services

Offer

Information

Question

Goods and Services

Command

Speech function (SF) pairs

Initiating SF
Offer
Command
Statement
Question

Responding SF
of supporting type

Responding SF
of confronting type

Acceptance
Compliance
Acknowledgement
Answer

Rejection
Refusal
Contradiction
Disclaimer

Speech function and

grammatical structure
a. Speech function is closely related to
grammatical system statement is realized
through declarative mood and question through
interrogative mood, command through
imperative as well as declarative.

b. There are two types of clause structures to

realize the mood structure of a clause:
propositions and proposals.
c. The devices used to realize interpersonal
meaning: positive/negative polarities;
interpersonal metaphor modalities and
projected modalization.

The grammatical structure of

propositions
Mood structure includes Mood and Residue

Mood element: - the part of the clause which

cannot disappear when responding speaker takes
up his/her position; - the ones included in tag
question (Subject + Finite).
Residue element: predicator, complement, and
adjunct. (Further examples see Eggins p. 160).
This is the part of the clause which is less
essential to the arguability of the clause than is
the Mood component.

Examples:
I
Subject

learnt
Finite

Predicator

MOOD

Simon
Subject

the English language

from this guy
RESIDUE

mightnt

have read The

Bostonians

Finite: modal:neg
MOOD

RESIDUE

Predicator as the constituent of

Residue:
I

reading

Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD

The Bostonians
RESIDUE

Simon

might

have been going to read

Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD
He

Subject

RESIDUE
knew

Finite
MOOD

The Bostonians

nothing about physics

Predicator
RESIDUE

Simon

was

trying to read

Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD

The Bostonians

RESIDUE

The Bostinians was

written

Subject

Predicator

Finite
MOOD

RESIDUE

He

is/was

Subject

Finite

a physicist

MOOD

Simon

has/had

Subject

Finite
MOOD

by Henry James

RESIDUE

a copy of The Bostinians

RESIDUE

He

was

being

Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD

RESIDUE

Does

Simon

have

Finite

Subject

Predicator

MOOD

a physicist

a copy of The Bostanians

RESIDUE

Complement as the constituent

of residue:
Henry James

TheBostanians

wrote

Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD

Complement
RESIDUE

TheBostanians was

written

by Henry James

Subject

Predicator

Adjunct (see below)

Finite
MOOD

Simon
Subject

RESIDUE

gave
Finite
MOOD

Predicator

George

a book

Complement

Complement

RESIDUE

George

was

given

a book

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Complement Adjunct (see

below)

MOOD

by Simon

RESIDUE

A book

was

given

to George

by Simon

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Adjunct

Adjunct

MOOD

RESIDUE

Henry James

is

a guy that can write

Subject

Finite

Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

He

isnt

contemporary

Subject

Finite

Complement:attributive

MOOD

RESIDUE

Adjuncts
- Adjuncts can be defined as clause elements
contributing some additional (but not essential)
information to the clause
- They can be identified as elements which do
not have the potential to become subject they
are not nominal elements, but are adverbial or
prepositional.
- Based on their contribution to any of the three
meaning potentials, adjuncts are differentiated
into three broad classes: experiential,
interpersonal, or textual.

Adding experiential meaning: Circumstantial

adjuncts of time (when), place (where), cause (why),
matter (about what), accompaniment (with whom),
beneficiary (to whom), agent (by whom).
They

cant

do

that

Subject

Fin:mod:neg

Predicator

Complement Adjunct:circ.

MOOD

RESIDUE

You

read

Subject

Finite

books

Predicator

MOOD

for fun

Complement Adjunct:circ.

RESIDUE

Henry James
Subject

these days

writes
Finite

about women

Predicator

MOOD

Adjunct:circ.
RESIDUE

George

was

read

The Bostonians

by Simon

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Complement

Adjunct:circ.

MOOD

RESIDUE

Adding interpersonal meaning: Modal Adjuncts

Mood Adjuncts, Polarity Adjuncts, Comment

Adjuncts, and Vocative Adjuncts.

a. Mood Adjuncts.

- Expression of probability: perhaps, maybe,

probably.
- Expression of usuality: sometimes, usually.

- Expression of intensification or minimisation:

really, absolutely, just, somewhat.
- Expression of presumption: evidently,
presumably, obviously.
- Expression of inclination: happily, willingly.

Camels

Probably/maybe
/usually/always/
sometimes

Subject

Adjunct: mood
MOOD

walk

Finite

Predicator
Residue

like that

Adjunct:circum.

b. Polarity Adjuncts: Yes and No

There are two functions of yes and No (yea, yep,
na, nope, etc):
1. As Polarity Adjunct when YES or NO standing in
for an ellipsed clause.
Henry James was a guy that could write.
- Yes (he was).
Adjunct: Polarity
MOOD
2. As Textual Adjuncts: when used in unstressed
initial position, introducing clause and treated as
continuity items.
Yea, I know.

Comment Adjuncts, functioning to express

an assessment about the clause as a whole.
a. Comment adjuncts typically occur in clause initial
position, or directly after the subject, and are
realized by adverbs. They include:
- admission: frankly
- assertion: honestly, really
- how desirable: luckily, hopefully
- how constant: tentatively, provisionally

- how valid: broadly speaking, generally

- how sensible: understandably, wisely
- how expected: as expected,amazingly

b. Comment adjuncts are considered interpersonal

elements in the clause, since they add an expression
of attitude and evaluation. However, the scope of a
comment adjunct is the entire clause, not just the
Finite element. Therefore, they should be seen to
operate outside the MOOD/RESIDUE structure
altogether.
Frankly,

cant

stand

Henry James

Adjunct:comment

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

Unfortunately I

ve

never

read

Adjunct:com
ment

Finite

Adj:
mood

Predica Complement
tor

Subject

MOOD

The
Bostanians

RESIDUE

Vocative Adjuncts; to control the discourse

by designating a likely next speaker.
a. They are identified as names, not functioning
as subjects or complements, but are used
directly to address the person being named.
b. They, like comment adjuncts, do not directly
impact on the MOOD constituent of the clause,
but effect the clause as a whole. So, they do
not belong to the MOOD or RESIDUE box.
Examples:
Did

You

do

physics

George?

Does

everyone

know

that,

Simon?

Finite

Subject

Predicator Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

Adj:voca.

Adding textual meaning: Textual Adjuncts.

Textual meanings are the ones to do with
the organization of the message itself.
The two main types of Textual Adjuncts are:
Conjunctive Adjuncts and Continuity Adjuncts.
So

poor old
Henry

Adjunct:c Subject
onjunctive

out the shoot

too

Finite

Complement

Adjunct:c
onjunctive

MOOD

RESIDUE

Because

he

didnt

Adjunct:con
junctive

Subject

Finite: Predicator Complement

neg

MOOD

know

anything
about
physics

RESIDUE

Well

what

Adjunct:continuity Subject

was

that book you gave me

Finite

Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

Oh

now

he

talking

about Henry
James

Adj:contin
uity

Adj:contin
uity

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Adjunct:circum
stance

MOOD

Yea

Adjunct:textual

Subject

RESIDUE

know
Finite

Predicator

MOOD

RESIDUE

Polar Interrogative (Yes/No Questions

Simon

is

reading

Henry James

Subject

Finite

Predicator

Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

Is

Simon

reading

Henry James?

Finite

Subject

Predicator

Complement

MOOD
Simon
Subject

RESIDUE

learnt
Finite

Predicator

MOOD

the English
language

from Henry
James

Complement

Adjunct:circum.

RESIDUE

Did

Simon

learn

the English
language

from Henry
James

Finite

Subject

Predicator

Complement

Adjunct:circum.

MOOD

RESIDUE

WH-Interrogatives
Who

The Bostonians?

wrote

Wh/Subject

Finite

Predicator

MOOD

Complement

RESIDUE

What

does

quantum leap

mean?

Wh/complement

Finite

Subject

Predicator

RESIDUE .

.. RESIDUE

MOOD

When

did

Henry James write

The Bostanians?

Wh/Adj:circ.

Finite

Subject

Complement

RESIDUE ...

MOOD

Predicator

. RESIDUE

Exclamatives
What a great writer

Henry James

was!

WH/Complement

Subject

Finite

RESIDUE

MOOD

How amazing

he

was!

WH/attribute

Subject

Finite

RESIDUE

MOOD

What great books Henry James was writing last century!

He

sure

was!

Subject

Adjunct:mood

Finite

MOOD

Modality: Modalization
probability/usuality and grammatical
metaphors/metaphors of modality
The Bostanians

might

have been written

by Henry James

Subject

Finite:mo
dal

Predicator

Adjunct:circumsta
nce

MOOD

RESIDUE

The Bostanians was

possibly

Subject

Adj:mood Predicator

Finite

written

by Henry James
Adjunct:circum.

The Bostanians might

possibly

have been
written

by Henry
James

Subject

Adj:mood

Predicator

Adjunct:circ
umstance

Finite:mo
dal
MOOD

RESIDUE

I reckon

HenryJames

Adj:mood

Subject

The Bostanians

wrote
Finite

Predicator Complement

MOOD

I think

HenryJames

Adj:mood

Subject

RESIDUE

The Bostanians

wrote

Finite

Predicator Complement

MOOD

I am sure

HenryJames

Adj:mood

Subject

RESIDUE

The Bostanians

wrote
Finite

Predicator Complement

MOOD

I
Subject

RESIDUE

think
Finite
MOOD

Predicator
RESIDUE

Transitivity Structure
It includes: Process types, Participants,
and Circumstances
Subject

Predicator

Object

He

drove

a car

He

saw

a car

Transitivity structure analysis

Transitivity analysis ---- the types of process,
participants as well as circumstances.
Process Types (Butler 1985: 164, Eggins 1994: 228):
a. Material process: Actor - Process: material Goal/Range/Beneficiary

b. Mental process: Senser- Process: mental - Phenomenon

c. Behavioural process: Behaver Process: Behavioural
Behaviour/Phenomenon

d. Verbal process: Sayer Process: verbal Verbiage

(Report, Quote)

e. Existential process: Process: existential - Existent

f. Relational process:
- Attributive: Carrier Process: relational Attribute
- Identifying: Token Process: relational Value
Material Process

I stayed up all night

He invited his friends
The postman delivered the letter

They tested the instrument

stayed up

all night

Actor

Proc: material

Circumstances

He

invited

his friends

Actor

Proc: material

Goal

The postman

delivered

the letter

Actor

Proc: material

Goal

They

tested

the instrument

Actor

Proc: material

Goal

He made a chair
He made a mistake
They give you a cognac
He handed her the bags
Mary cooked dinner for them all
She has given birth three times
The lady put the food on the table
He is cutting the apples with a knife

He made the girl carry the bomb

They got him arrested by the police

He

made

a chair

Actor

Proc:
material

Goal

He

made

a mistake

Actor

Proc:
material

Range

They

give

you

a cognac

Actor

Proc: mat

Recipient

Goal

He

handed

her

the bags

Actor

Proc: mat

Recipient

Goal

Mary

cooked

dinner

for them all

Actor

Proc: mat

Goal

Client

She

has

Actor

given

birth

three times

Process: material

Range

Circ: extent

The lady

put

the food

on the table

Actor

Process: material

Goal

Circ: location

He

is

Actor

cutting

the apples

with a knife

Proc: material

Goal

Circ: manner

He

made

the girl

carry

the bomb

Agent

Proc:
causative

Actor

Proc:
material

Goal

They

got

him

arrested

by the police

Agent

Proc: causative

Goal

Proc: material

Actor

Mental Processes --- the meanings

of thinking or feeling, covering:
A. Cognition the verbs of thinking,
knowing, and understanding
B. Affection associated with the verbs of
liking, fearing
C. Perception having to do with the
verbs of hearing and seeing
Material Processes vs. Mental Processes
What did X do to Y vs. What do you
think/feel/know about X?

Participants in mental processes:

a. Senser a concious human
participant.
b. Phenomenon the participant being
thought, felt or perceived by the
conscious senser.

Examples:
- She likes the dance
- I heard her leaving
- I saw him taking a rest
- He did not realize that it was his fault

She

likes

the dance

Senser

Process: mental

Phenomenon: simple

heard

her leaving

Senser

Process: mental

Phenomenon: act

saw

him taking a rest

Senser

Process: mental

Phenomenon: act

He
Senser

did not

realize

that it was his fault

Process:
mental

Phenomenon: fact

Projection
All mental processes can do projection,
which can be both quoting and reporting.
Projection of Quoting:
I thought, Ill go and give blood.
Projection of Reporting:

I thought Id go and give blood.

Behavioural Processes - are the ones

with the semantic features existing between material
and mental process. These are the processes
dealing with the processes of physiological and
psychological behaviour which is concerned with an
action that should be experienced by a conscious
being.
There are some behavioural processes having the
semantic feature of mental processes, but they are
actually different from their mental process
synonyms.

Behaviourals

Mentals

look at

see

listen to

hear

One obligatory participant in behavioural

process is a conscious being, behaver.
- He sighed patiently
- She laughed loudly
- She smiled a broad smile at him
- Mary sniffed the soup
- She tasted the food

He

sighed

patiently

Behaver

Process: Behavioural

Circumstance: manner

She

laughed

loudly

Behaver

Process: Behavioural

Circumstance: manner

She

smiled

a broad smile

at him

Behaver

Process:
Behavioural

Behaviour

Circumstance: location

Mary

sniffed

the soup

Behaver

Process: Behavioural

Phenomenon

She

tasted

the food

Behaver

Process: Behavioural

Phenomenon

Verbal Processes
Verbal processes are the processes of
verbal action, covering the action of saying
and all other verbal actions that convey
similar meanings with saying, such as
telling, asking, and talking, etc.
The types of participants in verbal
processes are: a. Sayer, expressing the
verbal process; b. Receiver, the beneficiary
of a verbal message; c. Verbiage, a noun
referring to some kind of verbal behaviour
and derived from the verbal process
story associated with telling.

He

asked

the lady

some questions

Sayer

Process: verbal

Receiver

Verbiage

The boy

is

Sayer

talking

about the accident

Process: verbal

Circumstance: manner

Projection in mental and verbal

processes
Projection in mental processes is
concerned with reporting or quoting ideas

Projection in verbal processes deals with

reporting or quoting speech referred to as
locutions in Hallidays terms.

Processes of being
These are the processes that are not
concerned with action meaning. They
convey the states of being, covering
existential and relational processes

Existential Processes
An existential process is concerned with
the statement that something exists.
The statement starts with the introductory
there, which does not convey any
meaning, but which is required to start
certain clauses in English

Example:
There is a man in front of the school

- The use of the word be or its synonyms like

exist, arise, and occur characterizes
existential processes.
- The word there, in this case, is not
analyzed for transitivity since it does not
convey any representational meaning.
- There are two constituents in an
existential process, namely the process
itself and an obligatory participant called
existent There was a wallet on the floor.

There

was

a wallet

on the floor

Proc: existential

Existent

Circumstance: location

Relational processes: processes

of being
Types of relational processes:

a. Attributive relational processes

b. Identifying relational processes

Each can be classified into sub-categories

like intensive, circumstantial, and
possessive.
The constituents of:
a. Attributive relational processes: Carrier
Process: attributive - Attribute

Intensive relational process

An intensive relational process deals with the
establishment of the relationship between the
participants of each process type, where the
word be or its synonym is the main means
of establishing this relationship.
The differences between intensive attributive
relational process and intensive identifying
relational process:
a. The meaning of an intensive attributive
process is descriptive, while intensive
identifying process is defining in nature.

Examples:
He

is

a student

He

is

very clever

Carrier

Proc: Att: Intensive

Attribute

You

are

the cleverest student

Token

Proc: Identifying

value

b. Reversibility occurs with intensive identifying

relational process, not with intensive atributive
relational process
You are the cleverest student

The cleverest student is you.

Circumstantial relational processes

Attributive circumstantial relational processes
a. The circumstance is often expressed in the
Attribute, the verb remains intensive, the Attribute
will be a prepositional phrase or an adverb of
location, manner, cause, etc.
b. The circumstantial element is conflated in the
Attribute.
The bomb

was

in her luggage

Carrier

Proc: intensive

Attribute/Circ:location

c. The circumstantial meaning may also be encoded

in the process itself with the verb is + circumstance

Examples:

The operation

lasted

one hour

Carrier

Proc: circumstantial

Attribute

(where lasted = be + for one hour)

Jans narrative concerns

her daughters operation

Carrier

Attribute

Proc:circumstantial

(where concerns = be + about)

Identifying circumstantial
relational process
a. The circumstantial meaning is encoded either in
the participants or the process. When encoded in
the participants, both the token and the value will
be the circumstantial elements of time, place, etc.,
while the verb remains intensive.
Yesterday

was

the last time he gave blood

Token/circ:time

Proc:Intensive

Value/circ:time

b. The circumstance may also be expressed through the

process, using the verbs: take, follow, resemble, accompany,
hold, etc.

The operation

took

one hour

Token

Proc:circumstance

Value

The terrorist

accompanied

the woman

Token

Proc:circumstance

Value

The milk bottle

holds

one liter of liquid

Token

Proc:circumstance

Value

Possessive relational processes

Possessive processes encode meanings of
ownership and possession between clausal
participants.
Possessive relational processes can be attributive
and identifying.
In Attributive Possessive Relational Processes,
possession may be encoded through the
participants (with the Attribute as possessor, and
the process remaining intensive.
This

is

yours

Carrier

Proc:intensive

Attribute/Possessor

Possession may also be encoded through the

process. The commonest Attributive possessive
verbs being to have and to belong to.
The Carrier will be Possessor
I

had

a daughter

You

have

8 points of blood

You

ve got

less blood than me

Carrier/possessor Proc:possession

Attribute:possessed

The carrier as what is possessed

The bomb

belonged to

the boyfriend

Carrier/possessed

Pr:possession

Att:possessor

In Identifying possessives, possession may be expressed either

through the participants, or through the process. When
possession is expressed through the participants, the intensive
verb to be is used, with the Token and Value encoding the
possessor and the possessed. The commonest Identifying
possessive process is to own.
The bomb

was

her boyfriends

Token/Possessed

Pr:intensive

Value/Possessor

Her boyfriends

was

the bomb

Value/Possessor

Pr:intensive

Token/Possessed

Her boyfriend

owned

the bomb

Token/Possessor

Pr:possessive

Value/Possessed

The bomb

was owned

by her boyfriend

Value/Possessed

Pr:possessive

Token/Possessor

Causative relationals
Causative relational processes may occur with
either Attributive or Identifying structures, with
causation expressed either through a make + be
(process:intensive) structure, or, with Identifying
relationals through a caustive Process. An Agent
also called an Attributor, in Attributive relationals,
causes the Carrier to have an Attribute ascribed.
The introduction of the causative process make as
the finite in these structures means that causative
passives can be formed, but the clause is still
Attributive. Note that the intensive process is often
ellipsed from the clause. With the Identifying type,
the Agent (Assigner) makes The token take a
Value.

The experience in
Geneva

made

Diana

(become)

Agent/Attributor

Pr:causative

Carrier

Pr:intensive Attribute

Diana

was made

a blood
donor

to become

a blood donor

by the
experience

Carrier Pr:causative

Pr:intensive

Attribute

Agent/Attributor

Giving blood

makes

you

weak

Agent/Attributor

Pr:causative Carrier

Attribute

They

made

Simon

the barman

for the night

Agent/Assigner

Pr:causative

Token

Value

Circ:extent

Simon

was made

the barman

Token

Pr: causative Value

for the night

(by them)

Circ:extent

Agent/Assigner

With Identifying clauses, the causative relationship

between participants can be expressed directly
through a causative circumstantial verb, such as:
results in, causes, produces, etc. The verb here is a
fusion of be or equals and the expression of
cause:
Donating blood results in/causes

weakness

Token

Pr:causative, circumstantial

Value

Weakness

is resulted in/caused by

donating
blood

Value

Pr:causative, circumstantial

Token

Textual Structure
Language resources making the unity of a text:

A. Coherence
B. Cohesion
1. Reference
2. Lexical Relation
3. Conjunctive relations
The resources constituting significantly to creating
a text:
a. A standard grammatical structure of language A text must be coherent in terms of grammar.

b. Actual communicative context (Situational

coherence)
c. The unity of clauses in a text, determined by:
1) The contextual properties of a text (coherence)
2) The internal properties of a text (Cohesion)

COHERENCE The way a group of clauses relate

to the context, where in Systemic Functional
Linguistics model, it includes:
Context of culture and Context of situation
Therefore coherence in this case is referred to as
Generic Coherence or situational/Registirial
Coherence.

Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the way the parts of a discourse
are related together. Cohesion indicates certain
features of a text, such as:
- The semantic tie of a text
- The consistency of participants
- The connection in terms of lexical selection.
The system of the various text-forming resources.

Types of cohesion:
- Reference

- Lexical relations

- Conjunction

- Coversetional structure

Reference
It deals with the way of introducing and keeping
track of the participants in a text. Participants can
be people, places, and things being dealt with in a
text.
Participants
Presenting

Presuming

Participants

Participants

newly presented

The identity is
traced somewhere in the text

Presuming reference
This includes the uses of: the, this-these, that-those,
pronouns (he, she, it, they).
The contexts from which the identity of a presuming
reference item can be retrieved include:
a. The general context of culture (Homophoric
reference): The earth is round.
b. The immediate context of situation (Exophoric
reference): Put it next to her.
c. The elsewhere context within the text itself
(Endophoric reference): Anaphoric, Cataphoric,
and Esphoric.

Other types of reference:

- Comparative reference
- Bridging reference
- Whole text reference
- Locational reference

Lexical relations
Relations:

A. Taxonomic Relations:
a. Classification:
- co-hyponomy

- contrast

- class/sub-class - similarity: meronymy,

co-meronyny

B. Expectancy Relations

Conjunctive Relations
Cohesive patterns of conjunction.

Types of conjunction:
a. Elaboration: in other words, that is (to say), for
example, for in stance.

b. Extention: also, moreover, in addition,

alternatively, etc.
c. Enhancement.

Conjunctive Reticulum.

TEXTUAL MEANING
The organization of clauses to express:

a. Experiential meaning is Transitivity Structure.

b. Interpersonal Meaning is Mood Structure.
c. Textual Meaning is Theme Structure.

The system of Theme covers: Theme and Rheme.

The nature of Theme:
a. This is the point of departure for the message.
b. It is the element serving as the starting point for
the message.

c. It is what the clause is going to be about.

d. It contains familiar/given information, which is
mentioned somewhere in the text, or familiar from
the context.
e. It is the element coming first in the clause.

The nature of Rheme:

a. This is new information for the point of departure.
b. It is the part of the clause in which the theme is
developed.
c. It contains unfamiliar or new information.
d. This is everything which is not the Theme.

The boundary of Theme/Types of

Theme:
a. Topical Theme.
- This is the element of a Transitivity function of
the clause occuring in first position in a clause.

- Every clause must contain one and only one

topical Theme. Once a topical theme is identified,
the rest must be Rheme.
b. Interpersonal Theme.
- This is the theme in which a Mood label occurs at
the beginning position of a clause. It can be
unfused finite, modal adjuncts: mood, polarity.
c. Textual Theme.

This is the one in which the textual elements have

their thematic positions. These are the elements
which do not express any interpersonal or
experiential meaning. They, however, have
important cohesive work in relating the clause to its
context. There are two main types of textual
elements which can get to be Theme:

a. Continuity Adjuncts: Oh, well, Yea, no, yap.

b. Conjunctive Adjuncts.

Topical Theme
In most
infants
Circ: location

there

are

Frequent episodes of crying

witoput no apparent cause

Pr:Existential

Existant

Topical

THEME

RHEME

ve given

blood

36 times

Actor

Proc:material

Range

Cirm:extent

topical
THEME

RHEME

This

was

in Geneva

Carrier

Pr:intensive

Attribute/Circumstance

topical
THEME

RHEME

Every clause must contain one and only one topical

Theme. Once it is identified in a clause, the rest must
be Rheme.
In Grece

they

give

you

nothing

Circ:loc

Actor

Pr:material

Beneficiary

Goal

Topical
THEME

RHEME

However,

cries

are

discomforting

Carrier

Proc:intensive

Attribute

topical
THEME

RHEME

Interpersonal Theme: Finite (unfused) as

Interpersonal Theme
Do

you

give

blood

Finite

Subject

Predicator

Complement

MOOD
Actor
interpersonal

RESIDUE
Pr:material

Range

topical

THEME

RHEME

Do

you

want

Finite

Subject Predicator Complement

MOOD
Senser

interperso
nal

some more soup,

RESIDUE
Pr:mental

Phenomenon

topical

THEME

RHEME

Diana?
Adjunt:voca
tive

Can

you

take

my bag

for me

Finite

Subject

Predicator

Complement

Adjunct:circ

MOOD
interperson
al

RESIDUE

topical

THEME

RHEME

Mood adjuncts as Interpersonal Theme

I think

they

Adjunct:mo
od

Subject

MOOD
interperson
al

take
Finite

a pint on
whatever it is

Predicator
RESIDUE

topical

THEME

RHEME

Complement

Maybe

Stephen

could

help

Adjunct:mood

Subject

Finite

Prdica

MOOD
interpersonal

RESIDUE

topical

THEME

RHEME

Just

give

me

a whistle

Adjunct:mood

Predicator

Complement

Complement

MOOD

RESIDUE

interpersonal

topical

THEME

RHEME

Vocative Adjuncts as Interpersonal Theme

Simon,

Isnt

that

Where they put

the needle in?

Adjunct:vocative

Finite

subject

complement

MOOD
interpersonal

RESIDUE

interpersonal topical
THEME

RHEME

Stephen,

do

you

want

more soup

Adj:vocative

Finite

subject

Predicator

Complement

MOOD
interpersonal interperso
nal
THEME

RESIDUE

topical
RHEME

When occurring after topical Theme,

vocative adjunct is not part of the Theme,
but Rheme
Do

you

want

Some soup,

Finite

Subject

Predicator

Complement Adj:vocative

MOOD

RESIDUE

interpersonal topical

THEME

RHEME

Diana?

Ok. Thats all...