Traffic Light Behavior

IF A=1
AND B=0

A
B
Car
Sensors

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

A
B
Car
Sensors

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

A
B
Car
Sensors

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

IF A=0

B
Car
Sensors

AND B=1
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

IF A=0

B
Car
Sensors

AND B=1
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

IF A=0

B
Car
Sensors

Note:
Clock beats
every 4 sec.
So Light is
Yellow for
4 sec.

AND B=1
Otherwise

Traffic Light State Machine

Otherwise
IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

IF A=0

B
Car
Sensors

Note:
Clock beats
every 4 sec.
So Light is
Yellow for
4 sec.

AND B=1
Otherwise

Traffic Light Design

Weve figured out the logical behavior of
the Traffic Light in terms of a
State Machine:
We know what the states are.
For each state, given any input,
we know which state to go to next.
How do we build it?

Traffic Light Design

Thinking this through:

Our machine needs to:

Traffic Light Design

Thinking this through:

Our machine needs to:

Remember which state it is in (Memory)

Traffic Light Design

Thinking this through:

Our machine needs to:

Remember which state it is in (Memory)

Given the state it is in and input values,

it must determine which state to go to
next (Logic)

Traffic Light Design

Thinking this through:

Our machine needs to:

Remember which state it is in (Memory)

Given the state it is in and input values,

it must determine which state to go to
next (Logic)
And thats all !

Traffic Light Design

Problem 1:

Remember which state it is in (Memory)

How do represent the states?

We could keep one bit of memory for

whether Light A is Green or not,
whether it is Yellow or not,
This would take 6 bits of memory.
There is a much simpler way!

Traffic Light Design

Problem 1:

Remember which state it is in (Memory)

How do represent the states?

Answer:
Just number them (using binary numbers).
We have 4 states.
Call them 00, 01, 10, 11.
We (human designers) will keep track of
what these names mean.

Traffic Light States

Otherwise
IF A=1

Light A

AND B=0

Always

Always

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

Otherwise

Traffic Light States

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Design

Problem 2:

Given the state it is in and input values,

it must determine which state to go to
next (Logic)
Answer:

Traffic Light Design

Problem 2:

Given the state it is in and input values,

it must determine which state to go to
next (Logic)
Answer:
Build a Truth Table

Use Universal Method!

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

0 1

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

0 1

* *

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

0 1

* *

0 1

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

0 1

* *

0 1

* *

0 0

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise

Light A

00

IF A=1
AND B=0

Always

Always

11

01

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

10
Otherwise

Traffic Light Behavior

Build A Truth Table
for next state / Output
M1 M2 A B

D1 D2 Light A Red

Light B Red

0 1

* *

0 1

* *

0 0

0 0

0 0

Traffic Light Design

We understand how to represent which
state the system is in (so we can store it in
Memory)
We understand how the system can
determine which state to go to next (Logic)
Lets put it together

Traffic Light Design

Input: Sensor A
Input: Sensor B

Traffic Light Design

D1

Current State

D2

Write
Sensor A
Sensor B

2-bit
Memory
Register

M1
M2

Traffic Light Design

Current State

Write
Sensor A
Sensor B

2-bit
Memory
Register

Logic
For
Next
State
&
Output

Next
State

6 Outputs:
for each
Light

Traffic Light Design

Current State

Write
Sensor A
Sensor B

2-bit
Memory
Register

Logic
For
Next
State
&
Output

6 Outputs:
for each
Light

Traffic Light Design

Current State

Clock
Sensor A
Sensor B

2-bit
Memory
Register

Logic
For
Next
State
&
Output

6 Outputs:
for each
Light

Design for Any State Machine

Many
bits

Current State

Clock

Inputs

Memory
Register

Logic
For
Next
State
&
Output

Outputs

State Machines
in Real Life
Elevator control systems
Car control systems

VCRs
Alarm Clocks
Personal Computers
Just about everything!

More Sophisticated Designs

Just add more states, more inputs, more
outputs, more rules
Example: Add a longer delay before Traffic
Light changes from Yellow to Red.
(Say 8 seconds instead of 4.)

Traffic Light Behavior

Otherwise
IF A=1

Light A

AND B=0
Always

Always

Always

Always

IF A=0

AND B=1

Light B

Otherwise

More Sophisticated Designs

Note that the new delay states we added
correspond to the SAME combinations of
lights as other states (Red/Yellow).
The purpose of the new states is only
to add delays.
Logical states need not correspond to
different observable states of the machine!

More Sophisticated Designs

Can also add other State Machines!

More Sophisticated Designs

Example (Fairness):

We might want a separate Timer machine

for the Traffic Light:
If cars keep coming, Light should decide
after 3 minutes to switch lights.

A Timer is just a state machine that keeps

counting beats of the Clock

More Sophisticated Designs

Inputs

Main State
Machine

Outputs
Timer
State
Machine

Computers!

State Machines that you can program

Review
In designing state machines, we used:
Binary Representation (to represent states)
Memory (to store the current state)
Logic Circuits & Universal Method
(to determine the next state)
In this way, we learned how to build
special-purpose digital systems
(e.g. traffic lights)

General Purpose Computers

What makes a PC different?

Today your PC cant play Final Fantasy X.

Tonight, you buy the Final Fantasy X CD-ROM

Tomorrow your PC can play the game!

PCs are general-purpose computers.

Realize state machines for traffic lights, digital

cameras, VCRs,
You can write a program (software) to control the
circuitry (hardware) of a general purpose computer

The Stored Program

Idea is simple:
Build a machine that can execute certain
instructions.

Then, write down different lists of

instructions (programs) to accomplish
different things.
One program plays an adventure game
Another program lets you write papers
Another lets you surf the Web

Programming
Using software to control hardware

Hardware is fixed circuitry

Software is instructions to the processor to
control the inputs to the fixed circuitry

Inputs to the hardware are of 2 types

Data
Program

We dont differentiate

Both are stored in computers memory

History of Programmable
Machines
First programmable
system was the early
printing process developed
in China circa 800 C.E.

First program was

perhaps Chinese
translation of
Buddhist Canon
(the Tipitaka)

History (cont.)
Gutenbergs Printing Press
(circa 1450)
Main Contribution:

Just a few basic

instructions (smaller
alphabet size) suffice.

History (cont.)
Huygens Pendulum
Clock
(circa 1650)

Main Contribution:
Timing, clock ticks
increase accuracy

History (cont.)
Musical Machines:
Barrel Organs (1500!)
Music boxes (between)
Player Pianos (c. 1700)
Main Contributions:
Drive cylinder or disk with
pins (bits!!) which play
notes at the right time
Change disk -> change song!!

History (cont.)
Jacquards Loom
(circa 1810)

Punched Cards
stored program
for weaving patterns.

History (cont.)

Charles Babbage (1822-64):

Input -- Punched Cards

Hardware -- general-purpose
mechanical mathematical
system

(Analytical Engine) -- never

built

Could be programmed

punched card could say:

Go back 5 punched cards

Instructions could be
Executed repeatedly, or in
different order.

The Modern Computer

von Neumann (1945)

Princeton, NJ

Basic Idea still the same:

A machine that can execute certain
instructions.
Machine instructions represented by
sequences of 0s and 1s
(Machine Language)
Instructions, and data, stored in Memory

Memory
Weve seen that memory can be used to build
State Machines.
In modern computers, memory is also used
in a different way:
Big arrays of Memory called
RAM : Random Access Memory

RAM is a place to store information while the

computer is running
The information includes the data that the
program reads and writes, as well as the
program itself (I.e. its instructions)

Programs are Just Like Data

One of the important features of the von
Neumann model is the fact that:
The instructions themselves

And
The data the instructions manipulate
are all stored in the same RAM.
This was one of the revolutionary features of
the modern computer, totally unlike Punch-Card
computers proposed in the past.

Programs are Just Like Data

This innovation is crucial to modern computing.
It even allows for the possibility of programs
that change themselves as they are executed.
With great power comes great risk
Computer Viruses!

How Memory (RAM) Works

Take a single bit of memory

D
M
Write

RAM (cont.)
Group 8 of them together.
D

8 bits (b)
is called a
byte (B).
Most RAM
is arranged
in bytes.

W
D
W
D
W

D
W

D
W
D
W
D
W

D
W

RAM (cont.)
A byte of memory (a.k.a. an 8-bit register)
8 bits input

Write

8 bits Output
8 bits
(1 byte)
of Memory

RAM (cont.)
We want a HUGE number of such 1 byte
memory cells.
1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

RAM (cont.)
We want a HUGE number of such 1 byte
memory cells.
1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

1B

Problem: How do we indicate which byte of

memory we want to use at any given time?

RAM (cont.)
Solution: Assign each byte an address.
We can number all the bytes in binary.
Each bytes assigned number is called
the bytes address in memory.
Then, we can ask the RAM:
What is byte number 011010101010?
Or tell the RAM:
Write 01101100 into memory at address
011010101010

RAM (cont.)
Address
Data input

Write

20

bytes of
RAM
(1 Mega-byte)

Data Output

RAM (cont.)
20 bits of
address

Address
Data input

Write

20

bytes of
RAM
(1 Mega-byte)

Data Output

RAM (cont.)
20 bits of
address

Address
Data input

Write

20

bytes of
RAM
(1 Mega-byte)

8 bits (1 byte)
of data

Data Output