MCM:115

CONSTRUCTION METHODS &

TECHNOLOGY
Ground Improvement Techniques

Prof. Sanjay Bhoyar

References:
Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering
P. Purushothama Raj
Pearson Education

Ground Improvement Techniques

P. Purushothama Raj

IS 13094: 1992
Selection of Ground Improvement Techniques for
Foundation in Weak Soils Guidelines
BIS

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Ground Improvement:
Enhancement of the in-place
properties of the ground by controlled
application of a suitable technique

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Need for Ground Improvement:

Soft soil:
If the net loading intensity of the
foundation exceeds the allowable
pressure
If, even for relatively low loading
intensities, the resultant settlement
exceeds the acceptable limits for the
structure
If the sub-soil is prone to liquefaction
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Remedies for Soft Soils:

Designing the structure/ embankment
for soft soil
Relocating the structure
Removing soft soil & replacing it with
good one
Treating the soil to improve its
properties
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Methods for GI:

Soil compaction
Soil stabilization
Soil densification
Pre-consolidation
Injection & grouting
Soil reinforcement
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Compression of soils:
Due to:
Elastic distortions
Rearrangement of particles
Seepage of water
Crushing of particles
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Compressibility of soils:
Initial/ immediate compression:
Elastic distortion immediately after load
application

Time- dependent compression:

Gradual compression due to gradual load
transfer from pore water to soil solids
Consolidation
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 Primary compression:
Completely controlled by resistance to
flow of water under the induced
hydraulic gradient

Secondary compression:
Due to plastic deformation of the soil at
zero excess pore water pressure
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Compaction of soils:
Increasing the density of a soil using force/
load
Packing the particles closer
Reduction in air voids
Without any significant change in volume of
water

Higher compaction
Lower the compressibility
Higher shear strength
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SANJAY BHOYAR

State of compaction:
Measured by:
Dry density, &
Associated water content

Maximum dry density & optimum

moisture content
Standard Proctor Test (IS 2720 part-7)
Most applications: highway fills, earth dams

Modified Proctor Test (IS 2720 part-8)

Heavier load applications: airport & highway
base course
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Compactive Effort:
Application of a given amount of energy
per unit volume of compacted soil
Static weight (pressure)
Kneading action
Impact
Vibration
Dynamic weight
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Compacting Equipment:

Smooth wheel roller

Pneumatic tired roller
Sheeps foot roller
Grid/ mesh roller
Vibratory rollers
Vibratory compactors
Plate compactors
Earth rammers/ tampers

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Pneumatic tired roller:

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Smooth wheel roller &

Sheeps foot roller

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Vibratory Plate compacters

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Field compaction:
Process:
Transferring soil from borrow areas to the
construction site
Spreading soil to suitable thickness
Adding water
Compacting the soil layer

Equipment required:

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Excavating & hauling

Bulldozers & graders
Watering equipment
Rollers/ special compacting equipment
SANJAY BHOYAR

Compaction Specification:
Performance- type specification

Physical properties of the compacted layer

% of MDD obtained in standard test (95%)
Dry density & moisture content
Voids ratio
Highway & Airfield pavements

Work- type specification

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Type of equipment
Lift thickness
The moisture content
Amount of work to obtain the necessary density
Dams
SANJAY BHOYAR

Field control:
Checking the density & water content
By taking soil samples
For every 500-1000 m2, for each layer

For moisture content:

Conventional method slow

Proctor needle Lab penetration resistance
curve
Nuclear moisture gauge

For density:

Core- cutter method

Sand replacement method

Nuclear density meter - % compaction

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Factors affecting compaction:

Moisture content
Compactive effort
Type of soil
Method of compaction
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 Degree of compaction contributes to

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The shear strength

The permeability
Compressibility
Sustainability for repeated loads

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Ground Improvement Techniques:

Soil Stabilization

Soil Stabilization:
Enhancing the soil properties by altering
the composition of the soil.

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Soil Stabilization:
Special soil is proportioned/ added/
removed, or
A cementing material or a chemical is
added to a natural soil

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 Mechanical stabilization
Cementing stabilization
Chemical stabilization

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Mechanical stabilization:
Improvement of soil gradation
Rearrangement of soil particles
Densification of soil
Correctly proportioning of coarse &
fine grained soils
Well proportioned coarse material
containing some clay binder
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 For a relatively high dry density, the

particle size distribution follows
% passing any sieve
=

100

Aperture size of that sieve

Size of largest particle

Greater proportion of material less than

0.075 mm is necessary for adequate
cohesion

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Lab tests & suitable properties:

Particle size analysis
Plasticity tests
Consistency limits

Compaction tests
Plasticity index

Base : max 6%
Surfacing : 4-9%

Liquid limits

Base : 25%
Surfacing : 35%

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Cementing stabilization:
Binding of soil particles without their
alteration
Portland cement
Bitumen/ asphalt

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Cement stabilization:
More of coarse grained particles are
cemented
Properties depend on
Nature of soil
Type & amount of cement
Placement & cure conditions adopted

Suitable for bases of roads & airfields

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For best results:

Soil:
Well-graded soils
Max size 75 mm
> 50 % passing 4.75 mm sieve
< 50 % finer than 0.074 mm
Plasticity index < 20 %
Liquid limit < 40 %
Cement:
5- 20 %
For gravels : 5-10%
For sands : 7-12%
For silts : 12-15%
For clays : 12-20%
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 Moisture Content:
Two roles Influences compaction characteristics
Cement hydration

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Construction method:

Shaping the soil

Pulverizing the soil
Adding cement
Dry mixing
Adding water
Mixing

Pulverization & grading

Compacting
Finishing
curing
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Stabilization process:

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Bituminous soil stabilization:

Stabilizes soil by
Binding the particles together, and/ or
Water-proofing

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For best results:

Max particle size < 1/3 rd of
compacted thickness
> 50% finer than 4.75 mm
10-50% finer than 0.075 mm
Liquid limit < 40%
Plasticity index < 18%
Asphalt emulsion in water
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Construction method:

Pulverization of soil
Addition of water for proper mixing
Adding asphalt emulsion
Mixing
Pulverization & grading
Compaction
Finishing
Aeration & curing

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Chemical stabilization:
Bonding the soil particles with a
cementing agent produced by
chemical reaction with/within the soil
Chemicals are also used as secondary
additives to increase the effectiveness
of cement & bitumen- soils
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SANJAY BHOYAR

 Lime
Slaked lime
Calcium & Sodium Chloride
Lignin (Organic polymer)
Powder/ liquid
Water soluble
Stabilization effects are not permanent
Water-proofing materials
Natural & synthetic Polymers
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Lime Stabilization:
Slaked Lime is added to reactive soils

Pozzolanic reaction
Stable calcium silicates, &
Calcium aluminates
Formation of strong bonds between the clay &
other soil particles

Long term gain strength

New bases as well as reclamation of bases
Ineffective for granular soils
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SANJAY BHOYAR

 Processing & curing lime-treated

material requires 5-7 days
Cement treatment requires only 2
days

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Stabilization process:

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Ground Improvement Techniques:

Soil Densification

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Soil densification:
Application of shock & vibration deep into
ground
Rearrangement of soil structure from loose to
dense state
Applicable to cohesion-less soils under high
water table conditions

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Vibro-compaction (vibro-floatation)
Compaction piles
Blasting
Dynamic compaction
SANJAY BHOYAR

Vibro- Compaction:
Deep soil densification
Vibrating poker (vibro-float) fed into
ground
Specially designed torpedo shaped
30-40 cm diameter
Vibrating frequency: 30- 50 Hz

Vibration in conjunction with water

flushing through the tip of the poker
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 Probe inserted by both jetting & vibration

Granular material (sand) is added from
surface to fill void spaces created by the
vibrator
Compacted radial zone of granular material
is created
Suitable for sand & other non-cohesive soils
With silt content < 10-15 %

Relative density in excess of 85% can be

achieved
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Vibro-float:

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Vibro-compaction

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Compaction Piles:

Vibro-displacement method
Pre-stressed concrete or timber piles
Driven by vibratory pile hammer
Installed in grid pattern
Densifies the soil, &
Reinforces the soil
Suitable for granular soils
Economical for smaller sites of moderate
depths (upto 15 m)

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Dynamic Compaction:
Dropping heavy weight (steel/ concrete) from heights
Fall of 10- 30m
When excess pore-water pressure from the dynamic
loading dissipates, additional densification occures
The surface requires shallow compaction with addition
of granular fill
Applications:
Sand densification
Compacting very loose soils
Soft grounds
Land fill treatment
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Blasting:

Detonating explosive charge at a certain depth

Local spontaneous liquefaction develops in saturated
deposits

Due to sudden shock waves

Pipes (100mm dia) are driven to the required depth

Soil removed
Dynamite & electric detonator wrapped in water-proof
bundles
Explosive charge lowered into casing pipe
Plugged (wooden/ earthen)
Casing withdrawn
Hole is backfilled with sand
Charge is fired
Charge spacing: 3- 8m
Wt of explosive, w = 164.C.R3

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Stone Columns:
Columns of gravel constructed in
ground
Deep compaction of moderately
cohesive soils
Creating stiff reinforcing elements
Considerable improvement in load
bearing capacity & shear strength

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Techniques of constructing stone

columns:
Displacement method
Vibro-flotation:
Adjacent soil as well as stone column is
compacted by vibro-flot

Bailer & casing method:

Non-displacement method:
Rammed stone column
Auger boring
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Rammed stone columns:

Cased bore
Backfilling using crushed stone/
gravel
Ramming the stone fill in stages
Extracting the casing in stages
Stages: 1.2 - 2m ht
Spacing : 1.2 3m
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 Compaction control:
Set
20mm or less for 10 blows of 2t.m energy

Suitable for:
Soils less responsive to vibration alone
Silty & clayey sands
Effective upto depth of 15- 20m

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Rammed Stone Column

Stone Column by Vibroflotation

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Applications:
Residential, commercial, and industrial
buildings,
Dams, storage tanks,
Power plants,
Highways,
Landslide corrections, liquefaction
mitigation, stabilization of cofferdams, and
other applications.
Stone columns can be used adjacent to
existing buildings without causing damage
from vibrations.
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Case study:
Project: Culverts along Saket- Balkum Road, Thane
Size of culvert: 6m x 30m (6 no.)
Traffic: Heavy
Design load : 80 kPa
Site location: Along Thane creek
Ground profile:
Top 1m : Filling
1- 2.5m : Soft clay
2.5- 6m : Moderately stiff clay
Below 6m : Weathered rock
Ground Improvement: Stone Columns

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Rammed stone columns:

No of SCs: 45
Diameter: 0.9m
Spacing: 2.0m
Depth: 9.0m
Pattern: Triangular
Open mandrel driving
Gravel with 20% sand
Rammed with 2 ton falling through 1.5m ht
Top of column is rammed by 4 ton hammer

Result:
SBC = 117 kPa (from 48 kPa)
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Ground Improvement Techniques:

Grouting

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Grouting:
Injecting fluid like material into
subsurface soil or rock
Grouting can be done
Before construction
During construction
After construction

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Objectives of grouting:
The formation under or adjacent to a
structure is grouted for
Densifying the formation to increase its
load bearing capacity
Reducing or eliminating the flow of water
through the formation
Reducing the hydrostatic uplift pressure
under a dam

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Grouting Principles:
Permeation:
Grout occupies inter-particulate voids/ rock fissures
Penetration grouting

Controlled displacement:
Grout remains as a mass, &
Exerts pressure on the surrounding soil
Compaction grouting/ Foundation grouting

Uncontrolled displacement:
If grouting pressure is greater than tensile strength
of the rock/ soil
Fractures rock
Grout penetrates into fissures

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Grouting Materials:
Suspension grouts:
Presence of particulate material
Water with cement, lime, soil, etc.
Emulsion of asphalt/ bitumen with water

Solution grout:

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Two or more materials chemically reacts

Resulting in a chemically stable solution
Absence of particulate material
Chemical grouts
SANJAY BHOYAR

Grout Types & Applications:

Cement grout:

Clays:

Impermeability improvement
Mass filling in medium coarse soils
Strengthening

Asphalt emulsions

Impermeability improvement
Mass filling in medium coarse soils

Clay+ cement grout

Mass filling in coarse soils & rock fissures

Ground strengthening

Impermeability improvement

Solutions

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Permeability & strength improvement

Medium coarse as well as fine soils
SANJAY BHOYAR

Factors deciding effect of grout:

Viscosity of grout
Permeability of soil
Shear strength of soil
Coarser & moderately permeable soils
High viscosity grouts
Cement-water grout is widely used

Fine grained soils of low permeability

Low viscosity grouts
Chemical grouts
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Grouting procedure:
Pre-grouting investigation
Drilling holes in a suitable pattern
Mixing & placing grout under pressure

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Grout re-circulating pipe

Grout
Mixer

Grout
Agitator

Grout
Pump

Grout
discharge
pipe

Bleeder valve
Injection pipe
Grout hole

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Compaction grouting:
Injecting highly viscous grout into a
compressible soil
Displacement & compaction of soil
Used primarily to lift & stabilize
foundations
An alternative to underpinning

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SANJAY BHOYAR

 Grout mixture:

OPC+ fine sand + water

Cement content : 12%
Least amount of water
Stiffer the grout, more effective its
injection will be

Grout is pumped until there is refusal

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Ground Improvement Techniques:

Pre-compression

Pre-compression
Achieving primary consolidation before
construction (before application of
structural load)

Major settlement before construction

Suitable for consolidation of saturated
compressible soils

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Accelerating consolidation:

Pre-loading
Shortening the drainage path

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Pre-loading:
Ratio of pre-load to the final
structural load
Coefficient of surcharge m
Higher m : less time for consolidation
m ranges between 1.0 to 2.0

A permanent fill in combination with a

surcharge fill
More settlement in shorter time
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Procedure for pre-loading:

Removal of top soil (0.5m depth)
Base layer of free draining material
Gravel + sand
0.6m thick

Pre-load application
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Methods of Pre-loading:
Heaping of fill material
Embankment loading
Constructing a peripheral dyke & filling the
enclosed area with water
Final structural load
Liquid storage tanks

Pre-ponding

Water table is low

Vacuum pre-loading
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Vacuum Pre-loading:
Soft clays
150 mm layer of sand is placed on
surface
Covered with impervious membrane
Application of 60- 80 kPa vacuum
pressure induced in sand
It acts as an equivalent overload
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Rate of Consolidation:
Time dependent compression
Degree of consolidation:
U = f(Tv)
Tv = (cv/d2).t
Where,
Tv = time factor (a dimensionless number)
cv = coefficient of consolidation
d = the drainage path
t = time corresponding to U
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Vertical Drains:
Continuous vertical columns of pervious
material installed in clayey soils
Soils with exceptionally low permeability

Drains provide the pathway for pore water

to escape by traveling a shorter distance
Flow is horizontal (i.e. the direction of least
resistance)
Drains collect & discharge the expelled
water faster
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SANJAY BHOYAR

 Working principle of vertical drains:

Concept of radial consolidation
Coefficient of radial consolidation is 2-10
times the coefficient of vertical
consolidation

Suitable for
Thick, saturated deposits of clay with
very low permeability

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Sand Drains:
Pre-load

GL

Sand
Blanket

Vertical
Sand
Columns

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SANJAY BHOYAR
Firm soil (N>15)

 According to Stamatopoulos & Kotzias (1985):

Lab consolidation on 20 mm thick specimen

Primary consolidation : 3.7 hrs

Extrapolating to 6.3 m thick clay stratum

70% consolidation 16 yrs

88% consolidation 43 yrs
With sand drains

70% consolidation 1 month

88% consolidation 2.6 months
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Types of VDs:
Sand drains
Pre-fabricated drains (PVD)

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Sand Drains:
Pre-load

GL

Sand
Blanket

Vertical
Sand
Columns

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SANJAY BHOYAR
Firm soil (N>15)

Sand Drains:
Diameter: 65 500 mm
Spacing: 2 5 m
Depends upon
Permeability
Duration within which consolidation is
desired
Such that 80% consolidation is achieved
during construction of fill

Depth: where N>15

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Sand:
Uniformly graded, medium to coarse
sand
< 5% finer than 75
Particles > 4mm should not be used
Sand should be approx. 1000 times
more permeable than the soil
Permeability: 10-3 to 10-1 cm/sec
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Installation of Sand Drains:

Mandrel method (Displacement
method)
High pressure water jetting
Continuous flight auger method

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains

(PVD):
Initially: cardboard drains
Now: plastic drains
Central plastic core, which contains
channels
Surrounded by a thin geo-synthetic filter
jacket
90-100mm wide; 3-5 mm thick
Spacing
@ 2 wick drains per sand drain

Wick drains/ Band drains/ Geo-drains/

Sand-wicks
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Installation:
Specialized equipment, stitcher
Consists of a vertical mast to house the
casing
Mandrel is hydraulically pushed or vibrated
into the ground
As the mandrel is withdrawn, the wick drain
is left in the soil
Installation rate
As high as 600m per hr
0.3- 0.6 m/sec
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Sand-wick drains:
Ready-made small diameter (100mm)
sand drains contained in long filter
stockings
Stocking material is HDPE or woven
permeable fabric

Installed by the closed mandrel

technique

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Controlling variables for VDs:

Rate of consolidation:
Spacing between drains
Permeability of soil

Amount of consolidation:
Soil compressibility
Pre-load
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Applications:
Accelerating the settlement rate of
compressible soils
As soil consolidates, the shear
strength increases due to reduction in
pore water
Used in conjunction with other ground
improvement techniques
Dynamic compaction
Stone columns
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Ground Improvement Techniques:

Soil Reinforcement

Soil Reinforcement:
A weak soil is reinforced by highstrength material
Composite material
Compacted frictional fill, &
Linear soil reinforcement

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Forms of soil reinforcement:

Stone columns
Compaction piles
Soil nailing
Micro-piling
Earth anchors/ rock bolts
Strips & membranes

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Civil Engineering applications:

Roads, railroads
Airfields
Embankment
Retaining structures
Reservoirs, canals, dams
Bank protection
Coastal engg, etc

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SANJAY BHOYAR

 Major functions
To increase the load carrying capacity
Provide stability to soil mass

Basic requirement
Durability
Resistance to corrosion
Non bio-degradable
Long life
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Preferred materials:

High alloy steel

Aluminum
Glass-fiber reinforced plastic
Geo-synthetics

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geo-synthetics (GS):
Polymer products, used for soil
treatment
Materials:

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Polyester
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
PVC
SANJAY BHOYAR

Types of GS:

Geotextiles
Geogrids
Geonets
Geomembrane
Geo-composites
Geosynthetic clay liners

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Geotextiles:
Flexible porous fabrics
Textile consists of synthetic fibres
Porous across their manufactured plane
& also within their thickness
Manufactured from Polyester or
Polypropylene
Types:
Woven,
Non woven
Knitted textile fabric
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geogrids:
Possesses large openings
Types:
Punched geogrids: HDPE/ polypropylene
Woven, coated geogrid: Polyester yarn

High tensile strength & stiffness

Mostly used as reinforcement
material
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Geonets:
Made of criss-crossing polymer
strands
Bi- planar:
Two layers of strands

Tri- planar:
Three layers of strands

Provide in-plane drainage

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geomembranes:
Thin materials
Relatively impervious sheets of plastic
May be strengthened with fabric/ film
Primary functions
Sealing against fluid percolation
Buffer against pollutants

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geopipe:
Flexible plastic pipe
Highway & railway edge drainage

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geo-composites:
Combining the features of various
geosynthetics
Can be combined with other synthetic
or non synthetic materials
Plastic sheets
Steel cables
Even with soil

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Drainage Geo-composites:
Blanket drains
Edge drains
Wick drains
Sand wicks
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL):

Sandwiching bentonite clay between
geotextiles or geomembranes
When wetted, the clay swells & acts
as an effective hydraulic barrier

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SANJAY BHOYAR

Major Functions served:

Separation
Reinforcement
Filtration
Drainage
Containment
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Applications of GSs:
Type
of GS
GT

Separation Reinforc
ement

GG

Filtration Drainage Contain

ment

GN

GM
GC

GCL
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Reinforced soil retaining structure:

Approach roads of a bridge/ flyover
State-of-the art flexible system
Success development in Geosynthetics

Advantages:
Cost effectiveness
Tolerate large settlements, bending & shearing
stresses
Less installation time
Least hindrance to the traffic flow
Handle poor soil conditions
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Construction sequence:

Subgrade preparation
Placing of levelling pad
Erecting of facia blocks
Placing backfill & geogrid
Compaction
Construction of side curbs &
pavement

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 Subgrade bearing capacity 8 t/sqm

Foundation at least 450 mm below ground
Erection of facia, soil backfill, reinforcement &
compaction are simultaneous
Tounge & groove arrangement
Flexible geogrid
Reinforcement is pulled & anchored between facia
blocks
Compaction to achieve 95% proctor density
Reinforcement is placed within 2-3% of OMC
Smooth wheel vibratory roller
1.5m near facia vibratory compactor
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SANJAY BHOYAR

Ground Improvement Techniques:

Some cases

Sand Drains & Pre-loading

Improvement of open stack ground
behind 7th cargo berth at Kandla Port
Area: 250m x 90m
Ground strata: 20m deep marine clay
Shear strength = 20kN/m2

Design load intensity: 50kN/m2

Pile foundation is impracticable &
very expensive
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Sand drains:
200 mm dia.
1.5m c/c
500 mm thick sand blanket

Soil Preload
6m high

Monitoring for:
Settlement, &
Pore water pressure
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Pore water pressure stabilized within

6 months
Pre-load removed

Shear strength = 45 kN/m2

Berth # 7 is operational for last 5
years, &
Open stack ground is performing
satisfactorily
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Case study: Stone Columns

Project: Culverts along Saket- Balkum Road, Thane
Size of culvert: 6m x 30m (6 no.)
Traffic: Heavy
Design load : 80 kPa
Site location: Along Thane creek
Ground profile:
Top 1m : Filling
1- 2.5m : Soft clay
2.5- 6m : Moderately stiff clay
Below 6m : Weathered rock
Ground Improvement: Stone Columns

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Rammed stone columns:

No of SCs: 45
Diameter: 0.9m
Spacing: 2.0m
Depth: 9.0m
Pattern: Triangular
Open mandrel driving
Gravel with 20% sand
Rammed with 2 ton falling through 1.5m ht
Top of column is rammed by 4 ton hammer

Result:
SBC = 117 kPa (from 48 kPa)
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Brisbane Inner City Bypass:

Soil strata:
1.5- 2m : stiff clay
10- 12m : marine clay
Beneath: bedrock

Phase I
Wick drains
1.5 m spacing
Grid pattern
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Phase-II

Dynamic replacement stone column

5m spacing
5-7m deep
Bailer & ramming method
Material:

Demolished concrete & rock fill (751000mm)

Phase-III

NICMAR

Granular blanket: 1m
Dynamic compaction by 10T ponder
Surcharge material added
6 months
SANJAY BHOYAR

PVDs & Pre-loading:

Residential project (Kerala):
45 acre land
48 (G+1) independent bunglows
Amenities

Site : low lying

1.2 m fill in place
Proposed finished GL - 0.8m above

Soil strata:
Silty clay
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Finished GL (0.8m above)

0.00m
Red Earth fill (N=4)
1.20m
Very soft silty clay (N= 1; PI=78%)
6.50m
Soft silty clay (N=2-4; PI=63%)
9.00m

Loose dirty fine sand (N=2-4)

12.50m
Loose clayey sand (N=9)
14.20m

Dense clayey sandy silt (N=30-40)

18.00m
Very Dense clayey sandy silt (N=>100)
22.00m
NICMAR

Weathered rock
SANJAY BHOYAR

 Coefficient of consolidation
Cr = 2 Cv

Design load = 6.8 t/m 2

Load of fill = 3.8 t/m 2
Structural load = 3.0 t/m 2

Preload: Expected to take > 3 yrs

Conventional sand drains
More construction time
Large amount of labour
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Pre-fabricated band drains

For 95% consolidation within 60 days
Triangular pattern @ 0.9m c/c
Preload: 3.0m
5-5.5 t/m2

Estimated settlement: 0.9 1.2m

Observed settlement: 0.78 0.85m
(90%)
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Construction of 2 buildings :6 months

Settlement after construction
145mm & 80mm
Acceptable settlement = 40mm

Settlement stabilized within 15 days

Uniform settlement due to RCC strip
footing
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Defect & rectification in GI:

Expected settlement = 0.8m
Effective preload = 2 to 2.2m
Further increase in finished GL by
0.8m
Preload removed : 1.4m
Owner conducted plate load test on
compacted soil at foundation level
Less settlement
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

 Deficiency in preload: 1.5 t/m2

Increased Pre-load for remaining
sections of the project
Settlement during preloading
0.9 m 1.0 m

Settlement after construction

30 mm
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Sand Drains:
Kansai International Airport

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Key Features
Located on a biggest man-made island in
Osaka Bay, Japan
Constructed cost over $14 billion
The island of 4 X 1 km, constructed in
around 18m of water, entirely from landfill
Project Started in 1986
Opened for flights in 1996
The ASCE named KIA the #2 civil
engineering project of the 20th century,
second only to the Panama Canal
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Construction of Airport
Stage

Activity

Time

Subsurface Investigation

1 year

II

Sea Wall Construction

2 years

III

Landfilling

4 years

IV

Terminal Construction

2 years

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Subsurface of the Kansai Airport

Foundation

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Seawall Construction
Up to 40 ft. above sea level
Tripod blocks on seaward side for
dissipation of wave energy

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Seawall After Completion

Seawall
Construction

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Mechanism of Sand Drains

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Advantage of Sand Drains

The weight of the piled sand forces
the water in the clay to move
outward along the sand piles.

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Application of One Million Sand

Drain at KIA

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Settlement Predictions
Lack of experience with construction
on deep deposit of clay
Expected settlement = 19 to 25 ft
Actual settlement = 27 ft (by the end
of island construction in 1990)
It continued at the rate of 2 in/month

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

What Went Wrong in Predictions?

Un-conservative estimation of
consolidation settlement
Wrong estimate of the time required
for completion of consolidation
settlement
Ineffectiveness of the sand drains in
achieving the required success 100%

NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Coping With The Problem of

Continued Settlement
Basement of the terminal was lined
with a quarter of a million tons of iron
ore.
Result: Island sank faster than the
building it is trying to hold

Installation of hydraulic jacks under

the columns
Result: No differential settlement
between the columns of entire building
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR

Learning From Mistakes

Using actual settlement data obtained
from 1st phase of project
Analysis of 400-m-deep boring
exploration
State-of-the-art soil test methods
Expected Settlement = 18 m
NICMAR

SANJAY BHOYAR