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Introduction To Chromatography

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Introduction to Chromatography

Definition
Chromatography is a separation technique based on the different interactions of
compounds with two phases, a mobile phase and a stationary phase, as the compounds
travel through a supporting medium.

Components:
mobile phase: a solvent that flows through the supporting medium
stationary phase: a layer or coating on the supporting medium that interacts with the
analytes
supporting medium: a solid surface on which the stationary phase is bound or coated

The analytes interacting most


strongly with the stationary
phase will take longer to pass
through the system than those
with weaker interactions.
These interactions are usually
chemical in nature, but in some
cases physical interactions can
also be used.

Types of Chromatography: - chromatography can be classified based on the type of


mobile phase, stationary phase and support material

Types of Chromatography
1.) The primary division of chromatographic techniques is based on the type of mobile phase
used in the system:
Type of Chromatography
Gas chromatography (GC)
Liquid chromatograph (LC)

Type of Mobile Phase


gas
liquid

2.) Further divisions can be made based on the type of stationary phase used in the system:
Gas Chromatography
Name of GC Method
Type of Stationary Phase
Gas-solid chromatography
solid, underivatized support
Gas-liquid chromatography
liquid-coated support
Bonded-phase gas chromatography
chemically-derivatized support

Types of Chromatography
Liquid Chromatography
Name of LC Method
Adsorption chromatography
Partition chromatography
Ion-exchange chromatography
Size exclusion chromatography
Affinity chromatography

Type of Stationary Phase


solid, underivatized support
liquid-coated or derivatized support
support containing fixed charges
porous support
support with immobilized ligand

3.) Chromatographic techniques may also be classified based on the type of support material
used in the system:
Packed bed (column) chromatography
Open tubular (capillary) chromatography
Open bed (planar) chromatography

Theory of Chromatography
1.) Typical response obtained by chromatography (i.e., a chromatogram):
chromatogram - concentration versus elution time

Wh

Wb

Inject
Where:
tR = retention time
tM = void time
Wb = baseline width of the peak in time units
Wh = half-height width of the peak in time units

Note: The separation of solutes in chromatography depends on two factors:


(a) a difference in the retention of solutes (i.e., a difference in their time or volume of
elution
(b) a sufficiently narrow width of the solute peaks (i.e, good efficiency for the separation
system)
Peak width & peak position
determine separation of peaks

A similar plot can be made in terms of elution volume instead of elution time. If volumes
are used, the volume of the mobile phase that it takes to elute a peak off of the column is
referred to as the retention volume (VR) and the amount of mobile phase that it takes to
elute a non-retained component is referred to as the void volume (VM).

2.) Solute Retention:


A solutes retention time or retention volume in chromatography is directly related to the
strength of the solutes interaction with the mobile and stationary phases.
Retention on a given column pertain to the particulars of that system:
- size of the column
- flow rate of the mobile phase

Capacity factor (k): more universal measure of retention, determined from tR or VR.

k = (tR tM)/tM
or
k = (VR VM)/VM
capacity factor is useful for comparing results obtained on different systems since it is
independent on column length and flow-rate.

The value of the capacity factor is useful in understanding the retention mechanisms for a
solute, since the fundamental definition of k is:

k =

moles Astationary phase


moles Amobile phase

k is directly related to the strength of the interaction between a solute with the stationary
and mobile phases.
Moles Astationary phase and moles Amobile phase represents the amount of solute present in each
phase at equilibrium.
Equilibrium is achieved or approached at the center of a chromatographic peak.

When k' is 1.0, separation is poor


When k' is > 30, separation is slow
When k' is = 2-10, separation is optimum

A simple example relating k to the interactions of a solute in a column is illustrated for


partition chromatography:

A (mobile phase)

KD
A (stationary phase)

where: KD = equilibrium constant for the distribution of A between the mobile


phase and stationary phase
Assuming local equilibrium at the center of the chromatographic peak:

k =

[A]stationary phase Volumestationary phase


[A]mobile phase Volumemobile phase

k = KD

Volumestationary phase
Volumemobile phase

As KD increases, interaction of the solute with the stationary phase becomes more
favorable and the solutes retention (k) increases

k = KD

Volumestationary phase
Volumemobile phase

Separation between two solutes requires different KDs for their


interactions with the mobile and stationary phases
since

G = -RT ln KD

peak separation also represents different changes in free energy

3.) Efficiency:
Efficiency is related experimentally to a solutes peak width.
- an efficient system will produce narrow peaks
- narrow peaks smaller difference in interactions in order to separate two solutes
Efficiency is related theoretically to the various kinetic processes that are involved in
solute retention and transport in the column
- determine the width or standard deviation () of peaks

Estimate from peak widths,


assuming Gaussian shaped peak:
Wh

Wb = 4
Wh = 2.354

Dependent on the amount of time that a solute spends in the column (k or tR)

Number of theoretical plates (N): compare efficiencies of a system for solutes that have
different retention times

N = (tR/)2
or for a Gaussian shaped peak
N = 16 (tR/Wb)2
N = 5.54 (tR/Wh)2

The larger the value of N is for a column, the better the column will be able to separate
two compounds.
- the better the ability to resolve solutes that have small differences in retention
- N is independent of solute retention
- N is dependent on the length of the column

Plate height or height equivalent of a theoretical plate (H or HETP): compare efficiencies of


columns with different lengths:
H = L/N
where: L = column length
N = number of theoretical plates for the column
Note: H simply gives the length of the column that corresponds to one theoretical plate
H can be also used to relate various chromatographic parameters (e.g., flow rate, particle size,
etc.) to the kinetic processes that give rise to peak broadening:
Why Do Bands Spread?
a. Eddy diffusion
b. Mobile phase mass transfer
c. Stagnant mobile phase mass transfer
d. Stationary phase mass transfer
e. Longitudinal diffusion

a.) Eddy diffusion a process that leads to peak (band) broadening due to the presence
of multiple flow paths through a packed column.

As solute molecules travel through the column,


some arrive at the end sooner then others simply
due to the different path traveled around the
support particles in the column that result in
different travel distances.
Longer path arrives at end of column after (1).

b.) Mobile phase mass transfer a process of peak broadening caused by the
presence of different flow profile within channels or
between particles of the support in the column.

A solute in the center of the channel


moves more quickly than solute at the
edges, it will tend to reach the end of
the channel first leading to bandbroadening

The degree of band-broadening due to eddy diffusion and mobile phase


mass transfer depends mainly on:
1) the size of the packing material
2) the diffusion rate of the solute

c.) Stagnant mobile phase mass transfer band-broadening due to differences in the
rate of diffusion of the solute molecules between the
mobile phase outside the pores of the support
(flowing mobile phase) to the mobile phase within
the pores of the support (stagnant mobile phase).

Since a solute does not travel down


the column when it is in the stagnant
mobile phase, it spends a longer time
in the column than solute that
remains in the flowing mobile phase.

The degree of band-broadening due to stagnant mobile phase mass


transfer depends on:
1) the size, shape and pore structure of the packing material
2) the diffusion and retention of the solute
3) the flow-rate of the solute through the column

d.) Stationary phase mass transfer band-broadening due to the movement of solute
between the stagnant phase and the stationary phase.

Since different solute molecules


spend different lengths of time in the
stationary phase, they also spend
different amounts of time on the
column, giving rise to bandbroadening.

The degree of band-broadening due to stationary phase mass transfer


depends on:
1) the retention and diffusion of the solute
2) the flow-rate of the solute through the column
3) the kinetics of interaction between the solute and the
stationary phase

e.) Longitudinal diffusion band-broadening due to the diffusion of the solute along the
length of the column in the flowing mobile phase.

The degree of band-broadening due


to longitudinal diffusion depends on:
1) the diffusion of the solute
2) the flow-rate of the solute through
the column

Van Deemter equation:

relates flow-rate or linear velocity to H:

H = A + B/ + C
where:

phase

= linear velocity (flow-rate x Vm/L)


H = total plate height of the column
A = constant representing eddy diffusion &
mobile phase mass transfer
B = constant representing longitudinal diffusion
C = constant representing stagnant mobile
& stationary phase mass transfer

One use of plate height (H) is to relate these kinetic process to band broadening to a
parameter of the chromatographic system (e.g., flow-rate).
This relationship is used to predict what the resulting effect would be of varying this
parameter on the overall efficiency of the chromatographic system.

Number of theoretical plates(N)

(N) = 5.54 (tR/Wh)2peak width (Wh)


H = L/N

Plot of van Deemter equation shows how H changes with the linear velocity (flow-rate) of the
mobile phase

optimum
Optimum linear velocity (opt) - where H has a minimum value and the point of maximum
column efficiency:

opt = B/C
opt is easy to achieve for gas chromatography, but is usually too small for liquid
chromatography requiring flow-rates higher than optimal to separate compounds

4.) Measures of Solute Separation:


separation factor () parameter used to describe how well two solutes are separated by
a chromatographic system:
= k2/k1

k = (tR tM)/tM

where:
k1 = the capacity factor of the first solute
k2 = the capacity factor of the second solute,
with k2 k1
A value of 1.1 is usually indicative of a good separation

Does not consider the effect of column efficiency or peak widths, only retention.

resolution (RS) resolution between two peaks is a second measure of how well two
peaks are separated:
RS =

tr2 tr1

(Wb2 + Wb1)/2

where:
tr1, Wb1 = retention time and baseline width for the
first eluting peak
tr2, Wb2 = retention time and baseline width for the
second eluting peak

Rs is preferred over since both


retention (tr) and column efficiency
(Wb) are considered in defining
peak separation.

Rs 1.5 represents baseline


resolution, or complete separation
of two neighboring solutes ideal
case.
Rs 1.0 considered adequate for
most separations.

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