BUILDING ELEMENTS

The building element comprises all elements that are

primarily part of the construction of a building, i.e., its
structural and space separating system.
Types of building
elements
1) Structural Element-
support that is a constituent part of any structure or

building

2) Non-Structural
Element-
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
BEAM
COLUMN
WALL
FLOOR & SLAB
RAMP
CHAJJA
SHELF
STAIRS
LINTEL
FOUNDATION
ARCH
DOME
Non-Structural Element
DOOR
WINDOW
VENTILLATOR
PARAPET
RALLING
WATER TANK
BEAM
A beam is a horizontal or vertical
structural element that is capable of
withstanding load primarily by
resisting bending. The bending force
induced into the material of the beam
as a result of the external loads, own
weight, span and external reactions to
these loads is called a bending moment
.
Overview
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but
can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads
due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a
beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders,
which then transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members. In light frame construction the
joists rest on the beam.
Types of beams

Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of

their cross-section), their length, and their material.
In contemporary construction, beams are typically made
of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood.
One of the most common types of steel beam is the
I-beam or wide-flange beam (also known as a "universal
beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal column").
This is commonly used in steel-frame buildings and
bridges.Other common beam profiles are the C-channel,
the hollow structural section beam, the pipe, and the
angle.
 A simple beam is supported by a pin support at one end and
a roller support at the other end. A beam with a laterally and
rotationally fixed support at one end with no support at the
other end is called a cantilever beam.
A beam simply supported at two points and having one end
or both ends extended beyond the supports is called an
overhanging beam.

Simple supported beam with uniform load.

General Shapes
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have
rectangular cross sections, but a more efficient cross
section for a beam is an I or H section which is
typically seen in steel construction.
Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes,
are also used in construction.
The most efficient shape in 2D is a box (a square shell)
however the most efficient shape for bending in any
direction is a cylindrical shell or tube.
Thin Walled Beams
A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam
(structure). The cross section of thin walled beams is
made up from thin panels connected among
themselves to create closed or open cross sections of a
beam (structure)
Typical closed sections include round, square, and
rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-
beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist
because their bending stiffness per unit cross sectional
area is much higher than that for solid cross sections
such a rod or bar.
Column
Column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is an
structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of
the structure above to other structural elements below in, other word
column is a compression member.
For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be
designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often
termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions.
Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the
upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to
such a structural element that also has certain proportional and
decorative features.
A column might also be a decorative element not needed for structural
purposes; many columns are "engaged with", that is to say form part of a
wall.
Structure
Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece
of stone.Monolithic columns are among the heaviest stones used in
architecture. Other stone columns are created out of multiple
sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together. In many classical
sites, sectioned columns were carved with a centre hole or depression
so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal pins.
The design of most classical columns incorporates entasis (the
inclusion of a slight outward curve in the sides) plus a reduction in
diameter along the height of the column, so that the top is as little as
83% of the bottom diameter.
This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to
see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they
are while entasis adds to that effect.
Foundations

A column that carries the load down to a foundation

must have means to transfer the load without
overstressing the foundation material.
Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are
generally built directly on top of concrete foundations.
A steel column, when seated on a concrete foundation,
must have a base plate to spread the load over a larger
area and thereby reduce the bearing pressure.
The base plate is a thick rectangular steel plate usually
welded to the bottom end of the column.
WALL
A wall is a vertical structure, usually solid, that defines
and sometimes protects an area. Most commonly, a
wall delineates a building and supports its
superstructure, separates space in buildings into
sections, or protects or delineates a space in the open
air.
There are three principal types of structural walls:
building walls, exterior boundary walls, and retaining
walls.
Building walls have one main purpose: to support roofs
and ceilings.
Partition Walls
A partition wall is a wall for the purpose of separating
rooms, or dividing a room. Partition walls are usually
not load-bearing.
Partition walls may be constructed with bricks or
blocks from clay, terra-cotta or concrete, reinforced, or
hollow. Glass blocks may also be used.
They may also be constructed from sheet glass
Metal framed partitioning is also done.
Boundary walls

if an exterior structure is made of wood or wire, it is

generally referred to as a fence, while if it is made of
masonry, it is considered a wall.
Examples of protective walls on a much larger scale
include the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's Wall.
FLOOR
A floor is the walking surface of a room or vehicle. Floors vary
from simple dirt in a cave to many-layered surfaces using
modern technology. Floors may be stone, wood, bamboo,
metal, or any other material that can hold a person's weight.
The levels of a building are often referred to as floors although
a more proper term is storey.
Floors typically consist of a subfloor for support and a floor
covering used to give a good walking surface. In modern
buildings the subfloor often has electrical wiring, plumbing,
and other services built in. Because floors meet many needs,
some essential to safety, floors are built to strict
building codes in the first world.
Special floor structures

Balcony, a platform projecting from a wall

Floating floor, normally for noise or vibration
reduction
Glass floor, as in glass bottomed elevators
Nightingale floor makes a noise when an intruder
walks on it
Raised floor, utilities underneath can be accessed
easily
Sprung floor, improves the performance and safety of
athletes and dancers
Issues with floors

Wood floors, particularly older ones, will tend to 'squeak' in certain

places. This is caused by the wood rubbing against other wood, usually
at a joint of the subfloor. Firmly securing the pieces to each other with
screws or nails may reduce this problem.
Floor vibration is a problem with floors. Wood floors tend to pass
sound, particularly heavy footsteps and low bass frequencies.
Floating floors can reduce this problem. Concrete floors are usually so
massive they do not have this problem, but they are also much more
expensive to construct and must meet more stringent building
requirements due to their weight.
The flooring may need protection sometimes e.g. a gym floor
alternately used for seating in a graduation ceremony. A
gym floor cover can be used to reduce the need to satisfy incompatible
requirements.
Ground floor construction:
A ground-level floor can be an
earthen floor made of soil, or be solid ground floors
made of concrete slab.
Upper floor construction:
Floors in woodframe
homes are usually constructed with joists centered no
more than 16 inches (41 centimeters) apart, according
to most building codes.
RAMP
A modular, portable and lightweight ramp of interlocking
panels is used to provide a sloping surface between surfaces of
differing heights. A first panel has a proximate end and a distal
end and at its proximate end there is a tongue for connecting
this first panel to a groove on an end cap, which rests on the
higher surface. A second panel has a proximate and distal end
and at its proximate end there is a tongue for connecting the
second panel to a groove on the distal end of the first panel.
One or more additional panels may be included in the ramp.
The most distal panel rests on the base surface at its distal end.
A distal end cap has a tongue that connects with a groove in the
distal end of the most distal panel to provide a transition from
the ramp to the base surface.
CHAJJA
A chhajja is the projecting or overhanging eaves or
cover of a roof, usually supported on large carved
brackets. It was used extensively by Hindus for
thousands of years, and then more recently borrowed
by the invading Muslim empires into the common
vocabulary of Mughal Architecture."
It forms part of the architecture of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. In Rajasthan they are
particularly large.
Design elements

The elements in the design of a CHAJJA are:

The material
The construction
The durability
The material of a chajja may range from banana leaves, wheaten
straw or seagrass to lamininated glass, aluminium sheeting and
precast concrete. In many parts of the world ceramic tiles have
been the predominant roofing material for centuries.
The shape of chajjas differs greatly from region to region. The
main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate
and the materials available for roof structure and the outer
covering.
TRUSS
In architecture and structural engineering, a truss is a
structure comprising one or more triangular units
constructed with straight members whose ends are
connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and
reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the
nodes and result in forces in the members which are either
tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torques) are
explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints
in a truss are treated as revolutes.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie
within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has
members and nodes extending into three dimensions.
Characteristics of trusses

A truss consists of straight members connected at

joints, traditionally termed panel points.
Trusses are composed of triangles because of the
structural stability of that shape and design.
A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will
not change shape when the lengths of the sides are
fixed. In comparison, both the angles and the lengths
of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it to retain its
shape.
Truss types

There are two basic types of truss:

The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized
by its triangular shape. It is most often used for roof
construction. Some common trusses are named
according to their web configuration. The chord size
and web configuration are determined by span, load
and spacing.
The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name
from its parallel top and bottom chords. It is often
used for floor construction.
TYPES OF TRUSS

BOWSTRING TRUSS Tri-Bearing TRUSS

ARCH
An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports
a load. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium
BC in Mesopotamian brick architecture [1] and their
systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who
were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of
structures.
Technical aspects
The arch is significant because, in theory at least, it provides
a structure which eliminates tensile stresses in spanning a
great amount of open space. All the forces are resolved into
compressive stresses.
This is useful because several of the available building
materials such as stone, cast iron and concrete can strongly
resist compression but are very weak when tension, shear or
torsional stress is applied to them.
By using the arch configuration, significant spans can be
achieved. This is because all the compressive forces hold it
together in a state of equilibrium. This even applies to
frictionless surfaces.
Construction
An arch requires all of its elements to hold it together,
raising the question of how an arch is constructed.
One answer is to build a frame (historically, of wood)
which exactly follows the form of the underside of the
arch. This is known as a centre or centring.

Triangular arch
Round arch or Semi-circular arch
DOORS
A door is a movable structure used to open and close off an entrance,
typically consisting of a panel that swings on hinges or that slides or spins
inside a space.
When open, doors admit ventilation and light. The door is used to control
the physical atmosphere within a space by enclosing the air drafts, so that
interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled. Doors are significant in
preventing the spread of fire. They also act as a barrier to noise.
They are also used to screen areas of a building for aesthetics, keeping
formal and utility areas separate. Doors also have an aesthetic role in
creating an impression of what lies beyond. Doors are often symbolically
endowed with ritual purposes, and the guarding or receiving of the keys to a
door, or being granted access to a door can have special
significance.Similarly, doors and doorways frequently appear in
metaphorical or allegorical situations, literature and the arts, often as a
portent of change.
Door Swing direction

Left hand hinge (LHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure side,
or on the public side of the door), the hinges are on the left and the door
opens in (away from you).
Right hand hinge (RHH): Standing outside (or on the less secure
side), the hinges are on the right and the door opens in (away from you).
Left hand reverse (LHR): Standing outside the house (or on the less
secure side), the hinges are on the left, knob on right, on opening the
door it swings towards you (i.e. the door swings open towards the
outside, or "outswing")
Right hand reverse (RHR): Standing outside the house (i.e. on the
less secure side), the hinges are on the right, knob on left, opening the
door by pulling the door towards you (i.e. open swings to the outside, or
"outswing")
WINDOWS
A window is a transparent or translucent opening in a
wall or door that allows the passage of light and, if not
closed or sealed, air and sound.[1] Windows are usually
glazed or covered in some other transparent or
translucent material like float glass. Windows are held
in place by frames, which hold them firmly in place.
Many glazed windows may be opened, to allow
ventilation, or closed, to exclude inclement weather.
History

The earliest windows were just holes in a wall.

Laterwindows were covered with animal hide, cloth, or
wood. Shutters that could be opened and closed came
next. Over time, windows were built that both
protected the inhabitants from the elements and
transmitted lighT.
The Romans were the first known to use glass for
windows
Modern windows are usually filled with glass.
STAIRS
stairs are names for a construction designed to bridge
a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller
vertical distances, called steps.
Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or
more straight pieces connected at angles.
Special types of stairs include escalators and ladders.
Some alternatives to stairs are elevators
Forms

Stairs can take a large number of forms, combining

winders and landings.
The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, with
neither winders nor landings. It is not often] used in
modern homes because:
The upstairs is directly visible from the bottom of a straight
flight of stairs.
It is potentially more dangerous in that a fall is not
interrupted until the bottom of the stairs.
A straight flight requires enough space for the entire run of
the stairs.
PARAPET
A parapet is a wall-like barrier at the edge of a roof,
terrace, balcony, or other structure. Where extending
above a roof, it may simply be the portion of an
exterior wall that continues above the line of the roof
surface, or may be a continuation of a vertical feature
beneath the roof such as a fire wall or party wall.
Parapets were originally used to defend buildings from
military attack, but today they are primarily used to
prevent the spread of fires.
Building parapets
The word comes ultimately from the Italian parapetto (parare = to
cover/defend and petto =breast). The German term Brustwehr has the
same significance.
Parapets may be plain embattled, perforated or panelled, which are not
mutually exclusive terms.
Plain parapets are upward extensions of the wall, sometimes with a
coping at the top and corbel below.
Embattled parapets may be panelled, but are pierced, if not purely as
stylistic device, for the discharge of defensive projectiles.
Perforated parapets are pierced in various designs such as circles, trefoils,
quatrefoils.
Panelled parapets are ornamented by a series of panels, either oblong or
square, and more or less enriched, but not perforated. These are common
in the Decorated and Perpendicular periods.
ESCELLATORS
An escalator is a moving staircase a conveyor transport
device for carrying people between floors of a building.
The device consists of a motor-driven chain of individual,
linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the
step treads to remain horizontal.
Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian
traffic in places where elevators would be impractical.
Principal areas of usage include department stores,
shopping malls, airports, transit systems,
convention centers, hotels, arenas, stadiums and public
buildings.
BENIFITS
The benefits of escalators are many. They have the
capacity to move large numbers of people, and they
can be placed in the same physical space as one might
install a staircase. They have no waiting interval
(except during very heavy traffic), they can be used to
guide people toward main exits or special exhibits, and
they may be weatherproofed for outdoor use. It has
also been observed that a non-functioning escalator
simply becomes a normal staircase, whereas many
other conveyances become useless when they break
down.
Safety

Safety is also major concern in escalator design. In India

where women wear saris, there are heavy chances of getting
the pallu entangled in the escalator.
There is a risk of feet injuries for children wearing footwear
such as Crocs and flip-flops that might get caught in
escalator mechanisms
Fire protection of an escalator floor opening may be
provided by adding automatic sprinklers or fireproof
shutters to the opening, or by installing the escalator in an
enclosed fire-protected hall. To limit the danger of
overheating, ventilation for the spaces that contain the
motors and gears must be provided.
SHELF
Shelf (storage), a flat horizontal surface used for display
and storage
A shelf is a flat horizontal plane which is used in a home,
business, store or elsewhere to hold items of value that
are being displayed, stored or offered for sale. It is raised
off the ground
It can also be held up by columns or pillars.
Shelves are normally made of strong materials such as
wood,bamboo or steel, though shelves to hold lighter-
weight objects can be made of glass or plastic. Shelves can
even be made from an old door, colored pencils or books.
Shelf (storage)
A shelf can be attached to a wall or other vertical
surface, be suspended from a ceiling, be a part of a
free-standing frame unit, or it can be part of a piece of
furniture such as a cabinet, bookcase,
entertainment center, some headboards, and so on.
Usually two to six shelves make up a unit, each shelf
being attached perpendicularly to the vertical or
diagonal supports and positioned parallel one above
the other. Free-standing shelves can be accessible from
either one or both longer length sides.
DOME
A dome is a structural element of architecture that
resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. Dome
structures made of various materials have a long
architectural lineage extend
The construction of the first technically advanced true
domes began in the Roman Architectural Revolution,
when they were frequently used by the Romans to
shape large interior spaces of temples and public
buildings, such as the Pantheon.
Characteristics
A dome can be thought of as an arch which has been
rotated around its central vertical axis. Thus domes,
like arches, have a great deal of structural strength
when properly built and can span large open spaces
without interior supports. Corbel domes achieve their
shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones
inward slightly farther than the previous, lower, one
until they meet at the top. These are sometimes called
false domes.
LINTEL
A lintel can be a load-bearing building component, a
decorative architectural element, or a combined
ornamented structural item. It is often found over
portals, doors, and windows.
A lintel has been an element of Post and lintel
construction. Many different building materials have
been used for lintels. A lintel is defined as a structural
horizontal block that spans the space or opening
between two vertical supports.
Uses

Structural uses:In worldwide architecture of different

eras and many cultures, a lintel has been an element of
Post and lintel construction. Many different building
materials have been used for lintels. A lintel is defined
as a structural horizontal block that spans the space or
opening between two vertical supports.
Ornamental uses:The use of the lintel form as a
decorative building element over portals, with no
structural function, has been employed in the
architectural traditions and styles of most cultures
over the centuries.
RAILING
A structure made of rails and upright members that is
used as a guard or barrier or for support.
railing, is a system designed to keep people or vehicles
from (in most cases unintentionally) straying into
dangerous or off-limits areas. A handrail is less restrictive
than a guard rail and provides both support and the
protective limitation of a boundary.
A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the
hand so as to provide stability or support. Handrails are
commonly used while ascending or descending stairways
and escalators in order to prevent injurious falls.
WATER TANKS
A water tank is a container for storing water.
The need for a water tank is as old as civilized man,
providing storage of water for drinking water,
irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural
farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical
manufacturing, food preparation as well as many other
applications. Water tank parameters include the
general design of the tank, choice of materials of
construction.
Parameters included for the general
design
Location of the water tank.
Volume of water tank will need to hold to meet design
requirements.
Temperature of area where water will be stored.
Wind and Earthquake design considerations allow a
design of water tank parameters to survive seismic and
high wind events.
Chemical injection systems for algae, bacteria and
virus control to allow long term storage of water.
FOUNDATION
A foundation is the lowest and supporting layer of a
structure. Foundations are generally divided into two
categories:

shallow foundations
deep foundations.
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
Deep foundations
Shallow foundations,
ften called footings, are A deep foundation is used to
usually embedded about a transfer the load of a structure
meter or so into soil. down through the upper weak
layer of topsoil to the stronger
Another common type of
layer of subsoil below.
shallow foundation is the There are different types of
slab-on-grade foundation deep footings including
where the weight of the impact driven piles, drilled
building is transferred to shafts, caissons, helical piles,
the soil through a concrete and earth stabilized columns.
slab placed at the surface.
LIFT(ELEVATORS)
An elevator (Lift)is a type of vertical transport
equipment that efficiently moves people or goods
between floors of a building, vessel or other structures.

Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that

either drive traction cables or counterweight systems
like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a
cylindrical piston like a jack.
Benefits

Creates more usable space

Use less energy (70-80% less than hydraulic elevators)
Uses no oil
All components are above ground similar to roped
hydraulic type elevators (this takes away the
environmental concern that was created by the
hydraulic cylinder on direct hydraulic type elevators being
stored underground)
Slightly lower cost than other elevators
Can operate at faster speeds than hydraulics but not
normal traction units.
DPC(Damp Proof Course)
Damp proofing in construction is a type of
waterproofing applied to building foundation walls to
prevent moisture from passing through the walls into
interior spaces.
A damp-proof course (often abbreviated to DPC) is a
horizontal barrier in a wall designed to resist moisture
rising through the structure by capillary action - a
phenomenon known as rising damp. A damp-proof
membrane (DPM) performs a similar function for a
solid floor.
Materials

Materials widely used for damp proofing include:

Flexible materials like hot bitumen, plastic sheets,
bituminous felts, sheets of lead, copper, etc.
Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt
Rigid materials like impervious bricks, stones, slates,
cement mortar or cement concrete painted with bitumen,
etc.
Stones
Mortar with waterproofing compounds
Coarse sand layers under floors
Continuous plastic sheets under floors.
Made by:
NAME: TANVI PATEL
ROLL NO. 26