Lecture PowerPoint

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature of
Matter and Change
Sixth Edition

Martin S. Silberberg

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
13-1
 Chapter 13

The Properties of Mixtures:

Solutions and Colloids

13-2
 The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids

13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Solubility

13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules

13.3 Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the Solution Process

13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

13.5 Concentration Terms

13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions

13.7 Structure and Properties of Colloids

13-3
 Solutions and Colloids

A solution is a homogeneous mixture and exists as a

single phase.
The particles in a solution are individual atoms, ions, or small molecules.

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture and exists as two or

more phases, which may be visibly distinct.
The particles in a colloid are typically macromolecules or aggregations of
small molecules.

13-4
 Table 13.1 Approximate Composition of a Bacterium

Mass % Number Number of

Substance of Cell of Types Molecules
Water ~70 1 5x1010
Ions 1 20 ?
Sugars* 3 200 3x108
Amino acids* 0.4 100 5x107
Lipids* 2 50 3x107
Nucleotides* 0.4 200 1x107
Other small molecules 0.2 ~200 ?
Macromolecules 23 ~5000 6x106
(proteins, nucleic acids,
polysaccharides).
*Includes precursors and metabolites.

13-5
 Solutions and Solubility

A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.

Usually, the solvent is the most abundant component.

The solubility (S) of a solute is the maximum amount

that dissolves in a fixed quantity of solvent at a given
temperature.

Substances that exhibit similar types of intermolecular

force dissolve in each other.
This is often expressed by saying like dissolves in like.

13-6
 Figure 13.1 Types of intermolecular forces in solutions.

Ion-dipole Ion-induced dipole

(40-600) (3-15)

H bond Dipole-induced dipole

(10-40) (2-10)

Dispersion
Dipole-dipole (0.05-40)
(5-25)

13-7
 Solutions and Intermolecular Forces

When a solution forms, solute-solute attractions and

solvent-solvent attractions are replaced by solute-
solvent attractions.

This can only occur if the forces within the solute and
solvent are similar to the forces that replace them.

13-8
 Figure 13.2 Hydration shells around an Na+ ion.

Ion-dipole forces orient water molecules around an ion. In the innermost

shell here, six water molecules surround the cation octahedrally.

13-9
 Dual Polarity and Effects on Solubility

Alcohols are organic compounds that have dual

polarity.
The general formula for an alcohol is CH3(CH2)nOH.
The OH group of an alcohol is polar.
It interacts with water through H bonds and
with hexane by through weak dipole-induced dipole forces.
The hydrocarbon portion is nonpolar.
It interacts through weak dipole-induced dipole forces with
water
and by dispersion forces with hexane.

13-10
 Table 13.2 Solubility* of a Series of Alcohols in Water and in
Hexane.
Solubility Solubility
Alcohol Model in Water in Hexane
CH3OH 1.2
(methanol)
CH3CH2OH
(ethanol)
CH3(CH2)2OH
(propanol)
(CH3(CH2)3OH 1.1
(1-butanol)
(CH3(CH2)4OH 0.30
(1-pentanol)
(CH3(CH2)5OH 0.058
(1-hexanol)
*Expressed in mol alcohol/1000 g solvent at 20C.
13-11
 Figure 13.3 Like dissolves like: solubility of methanol in water.

H 2O Methanol
CH3OH

Both H2O and methanol have H bonds between their molecules.

A solution of water and methanol.

13-12
 Sample Problem 13.1 Predicting Relative Solubilities

PROBLEM: Predict which solvent will dissolve more of the given

solute.
(a) Sodium chloride in methanol (CH3OH) or in propanol
(CH3CH2CH2OH).
(b) Ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) in hexane
(CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3) or in water.
(c) Diethyl ether (CH3CH2OCH2CH3) in water or in ethanol
(CH3CH2OH).

PLAN: We examine the formulas of solute and solvent to determine

the forces in and between solute and solvent. A solute is more
soluble in a solvent whose intermolecular forces are similar
to, and therefore can replace, its own.

13-13
 Sample Problem 13.1

SOLUTION:
(a) Methanol. NaCl is ionic, so it dissolves in polar solvents through
ion-dipole forces. Both methanol and 1-propanol have a polar OH
group, but the hydrocarbon portion of each alcohol interacts only
weakly with the ions and 1-propanol has a longer hydrocarbon
portion than methanol.

(b) Water. Ethylene glycol molecules have two OH groups, so they

interact with each other through H bonding. H bonds formed with
H2O can replace these H bonds between solute molecules better
than the dipole-induced dipole forces that form with hexane.

(c) Ethanol. Diethyl ether molecules interact through diple-dipole and

dispersion forces. They can form H bonds to H2O or to ethanol.
However, ethanol can also interact with the ether effectively
through dispersion forces because it has a hydrocarbon chain.

13-14
 Table 13.3 Correlation Between Boiling Point and Solubility
in Water

Gas Solubility (M)* bp (K)

He 4.2 x 10-4 4.2

Ne 6.6 x 10-4 27.1

N2 10.4 x 10-4 77.4

CO 15.6 x 10-4 81.6
O2 21.8 x 10-4 90.2

NO 32.7 x 10-4 121.4

* At 273 K and 1 atm

13-15
 Figure 13.4 The arrangement of atoms in two types of alloys.

Brass, a substitutional alloy Carbon steel, an interstitial alloy

13-16
 Intermolecular Forces and Biological
Macromolecules

Intermolecular forces play a key role in determining the

structure and function of biological molecules.

There are two key groups of interactions to note:

Polar and ionic groups attract water, but nonpolar
groups do not.
Distant groups on the same molecule attract each other
in the same way that groups on different molecules do.

13-17
 Figure 13.5 The charged form of an amino acid under
physiological conditions.

one of 20 different side chains

R
O
+
H3N C C
O-
H
-carbon

13-18
 Figure 13.6 A portion of a polypeptide chain.

13-19
 Figure 13.7 The forces that maintain protein structure.

13-20
 Figure 13.8 The cleaning ability of a soap depends on the dual
polarity of its molecules.

13-21
 Figure 13.9 A membrane phospholipid.

13-22
 Figure 13.10 Intermolecular forces and cell membrane
structure.

13-23
 Figure 13.11 The mode of action of the antibiotic gramicidin A.

Gramicidin A and similar antibiotics form channels through the cell

membrane, allowing ions to flow through. This disrupts the normal
balance of K+/Na+ concentrations and the cell dies.

13-24
 Figure 13.12 A short portion of the polynucleotide chain of DNA.

13-25
 Figure 13.13 The double helix of DNA.

13-26
 Energy changes in Solution Formation

Step 1: Solute particles separate from each other. This

process is endothermic.
Solute (aggregated) + heat solute (separated) Hsolute > 0

Step 2: Solvent particles separate from each other. This

process is endothermic.
Solvent (aggregated) + heat solvent (separated) Hsolvent > 0

Step 3: Solute and solvent particles mix and form a

solution. This step is exothermic.
Solute (separated) + solvent (separated) solution + heat Hmix < 0

13-27
 Heat of Solution

DHsoln = DHsolute + DHsolvent + DHmix

The overall solution process may be either exothermic

or endothermic.

Exothermic process: DHsoln < 0 because the sum of

the endothermic processes (DHsolute + DHsolvent) is
smaller than the exothermic term (DHmix).

Endothermic process: DHsoln < 0 because the sum of

the endothermic processes (DHsolute + DHsolvent) is larger
than the exothermic term (DHmix).

13-28
 Figure 13.14 Enthalpy components of the heat of solution.

Exothermic solution process

DHmix > DHsolute + DHsolvent
DHsoln < 0

Endothermic solution process

DHmix < DHsolute + DHsolvent
DHsoln > 0

13-29
 Solvation and Hydration

Solvation is the process of surrounding a particle with

solvent particles. In water, solvation is called hydration.
DHsolvation = DHsolvent + DHmix

In water, DHsoln = DHsolute + DHhydr

The hydration of an ion is always exothermic because

ion-dipole forces are very strong.
M+(g) [or X-(g)] M+(aq) [or X-(aq)] DHhydr of the ion (always < 0)

13-30
 Trends in DHhydr for Ions

The heat of hydration for an ion depends on the charge

density, the ratio of charge to volume.
The higher the charge of the ion and the smaller its
radius, the closer the ion can be to the oppositely
charged pole of the H2O molecule, and the stronger the
attraction.
Charge density and DHhydr values decrease down a
group.

Charge density and DHhydr values increase across a

period.

13-31
 Table 13.4 Trends in Ionic Heats of Hydration
Ion Ionic Radius (pm) DHhydr (kJ/mol)
Group 1A(1)
Na+ 102 -410
K+ 138 -336
Rb+ 152 -315
Cs+ 167 -282
Group 2A(2)
Mg2+ 72 -1903
Ca2+ 100 -1591
Sr2+ 118 -1424
Ba2+ 135 -1317
Group 7A(17)
F- 133 -431
Cl- 181 -313
Br- 196 -284
I- 220 -247

13-32
 Figure 13.15 Enthalpy diagrams for three ionic compounds
dissolving in water.

NaCl NH4NO3

NaOH
13-33
 Solutions and Entropy

The entropy (S) of a system is related to the number of

ways a system can disperse its energy and therefore to the
freedom of motion of the particles.

Gases have the highest entropy of the three states of

matter.

A solution usually has higher entropy than the pure solute

and pure solvent.

An increase in entropy is favored in both physical and

chemical processes.

13-34
 Figure 13.16A Enthalpy diagram for dissolving NaCl in hexane.

For NaCl, DHmix is much smaller than DHsolute; DHsoln is so much

larger than the entropy increase due to mixing that NaCl does not
dissolve.

13-35
 Figure 13.16B Enthalpy diagram for dissolving octane in hexane.

For octane, DHsoln is very small, but the entropy increase due to mixing is
large, so octane dissolves.

13-36
 Solubility and Equilibrium

A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of

dissolved solute at a given temperature in the presence of
undissolved solute.

Undissolved solute is in equilibrium with dissolved solute.

Solute (undissolved) solute (dissolved)

An unsaturated solution contains less than the

equilibrium concentration of dissolved solute. If more solute
is added, it will dissolve.

13-37
 Figure 13.17 Equilibrium in a saturated solution.

solute (undissolved) solute (dissolved)

13-38
 Figure 13.18 Sodium acetate crystallizing from a supersaturated
solution.

A supersaturated solution contains more

than the equilibrium concentration of solute. It
is unstable and any disturbance will cause
excess solute to crystallize immediately.

13-39
 Factors that affect Solubility

Temperature affects solubility.

Most solids are more soluble at higher temperatures.
Gases become less soluble as temperature increases.

Pressure affects the solubility of gases they become

more soluble at higher pressure.

13-40
 Figure 13.19 Relation between solubility and temperature for
several ionic compounds.

13-41
 Figure 13.20 Preventing thermal pollution with cooling towers.

13-42
 Figure 13.21 The effect of pressure on gas solubility.

As the pressure is increased, more gas particles collide with the

liquid surface. More gas particles dissolve until equilibrium is re-
established.

13-43
 Henrys Law

The solubility of a gas (Sgas) is directly proportional to the

partial pressure of the gas (Pgas) above the solution.

Sgas = kH X Pgas

13-44
 Sample Problem 13.2 Using Henrys Law to Calculate Gas
Solubility
PROBLEM: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide gas inside a bottle
of cola is 4 atm at 25oC. What is the solubility of CO2?
The Henrys law constant for CO2 dissolved in water is
3.3 x10-2 mol/Latm at 25oC.

PLAN: We know P for CO2 (4 atm) and the value of kH, so we

substitute these into the Henrys law equation.

SOLUTION:
S = (3.3 x10-2 mol/Latm)(4 atm) = 0.1 mol/L
CO2

13-45
 Table 13.5 Concentration Definitions

Concentration Term Ratio

amount (mol) of solute

Molarity (M)
volume (L) of solution

amount (mol) of solute

Molality (m)
mass (kg) of solvent

mass of solute
Parts by mass
mass of solution

volume of solute
Parts by volume
volume of solution

Mole fraction (X) amount (mol) of solute

amount (mol) of solute + amount (mol) of solvent

13-46
 Sample Problem 13.3 Calculating Molality

PROBLEM: What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving

32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g of water?

PLAN: Molality is defined as moles of solute (CaCl2) divided by kg of

solvent (H2O). We convert the mass of CaCl2 to moles using
the molar mass, and then divide by the mass of H2O, being
sure to convert from grams to kilograms.

mass (g) of CaCl2

divide by M of (g/mol)

amount (mol) of CaCl2

divide by kg of water

molality (m) of CaCl2 solution

13-47
 Sample Problem 13.3

SOLUTION:

1 mol CaCl2
32.0 g CaCl2 x = 0.288 mol CaCl2
110.98 g CaCl2

0.288 mol CaCl2

molality = = 1.06 m CaCl2
1 kg
271 g H2O x
103 g

13-48
 Sample Problem 13.4 Expressing Concentrations in Parts by
Mass, Parts by Volume, and Mole Fraction

PROBLEM: (a) Find the concentration of calcium (in ppm) in a 3.50-g

pill that contains 40.5 mg of Ca.
(b) The label on a 0.750-L bottle of Italian chianti indicates
11.5% alcohol by volume. How many liters of
alcohol does the wine contain?
(c) A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142 g of
isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH) and 58.0 g of water. What
are the mole fractions of alcohol and water?

PLAN: (a) We convert mg to g of Ca2+, find the mass ratio of Ca2+ to

pill and multiply by 106.
(b) We know the volume % of the alcohol and the total
volume, so we can find the volume of alcohol.
(c) We convert g of solute and solvent to moles in order to
calculate the mole fractions.

13-49
 Sample Problem 13.4

SOLUTION:
1g
40.5 mg Ca2+ x
(a) 103 mg
x 106 = 1.16x104 ppm Ca2+
3.5 g

11.5 L alcohol
(b) 0.750 L chianti x = 0.0862 L alcohol
100. L chianti

(c)
moles isopropyl alcohol = 142 g x 1 mole = 2.36 mol C H OH
3 7
60.09 g
moles water = 58.0 g x 1 mole
= 3.22 mol H2O
18.02 g

13-50
 Sample Problem 13.4

2.36 mol C2H8O2

X C H OH = = 0.423
3 7
2.36 mol C3H7OH + 3.22 mol H2O

XH O = 3.22 mol H2O

2 = 0.577
2.36 mol C3H7OH + 3.22 mol H2O

13-51
 Interconverting Concentration Terms

To convert a term based on amount (mol) to one based

on mass, you need the molar mass.
To convert a term based on mass to one based on
volume, you need the solution density.
Molality involves quantity of solvent, whereas the other
concentration terms involve quantity of solution.

13-52
 Sample Problem 13.5 Interconverting Concentration Terms

PROBLEM: Hydrogen peroxide is a powerful oxidizing agent used in

concentrated solution in rocket fuels and in dilute solution
as a hair bleach. An aqueous solution H2O2 is 30.0% by
mass and has a density of 1.11 g/mL. Calculate its

(a) Molality (b) Mole fraction of H2O2 (c) Molarity

PLAN: (a) To find the mass of solvent we assume the % is per 100 g
of solution. Take the difference in the mass of the solute
and solution for the mass of peroxide.
(b) Convert g of solute and solvent to moles before finding X.
(c) Use the density to find the volume of the solution.

13-53
 Sample Problem 13.5

SOLUTION:
(a) From mass % to molality:
g of H2O = 100. g solution - 30.0 g H2O2 = 70.0 g H2O
1 mol H2O2
30.0 g H2O2 x = 0.882 mol H2O2
34.02 g H2O2

0.882 mol H2O2

molality = = 12.6 m H2O2
70.0 g x 1 kg
103 g

13-54
 Sample Problem 13.5

(b) From mass % to mole fraction:

1 mol H2O
70.0 g H2O x = 3.88 mol H2O
18.02 g H2O

XH O = 0.882 mol H2O2

2 2 = 0.185
3.88 mol H2O + 0.882 mol H2O2

(c) From mass % and density to molarity:

1 mL
volume (mL) of solution = 100.0 g x = 90.1 mL
1.11 g

mol H2O2 0.882 mol H2O2

molarity = = = 9.79 M H2O2
L soln 90.1 mL x 1 L soln
103 mL

13-55
 Colligative Properties of Solutions
Colligative properties are properties that depend on the
number of solute particles, not their chemical identity.
The number of particles in solution can be predicted from
the formula and type of the solute.
An electrolyte separates into ions when it dissolves in
water.
Strong electrolytes dissociate completely while weak electrolytes
dissociate very little.

A nonelectrolyte does not dissociate to form ions.

Each mole of dissolved compound yields 1 mole of particles in
solution.

13-56
 Figure 13.22 Conductivity of three types of electrolyte solutions.

strong electrolyte weak electrolyte nonelectrolyte

13-57
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
The vapor pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile
nonelectrolyte is always lower than the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent.
Raoults law states that the vapor pressure of the solvent
above the solution is proportional to the mole fraction of
the solvent present:
Psolvent = Xsolvent x Psolvent

The vapor pressure lowering is proportional to the mole

fraction of the solute present.

DPsolvent = Xsolute x Psolvent

13-58
 Figure 13.23 Effect of solute on the vapor pressure of solution.

Equilibrium is reached with a Equilibrium is reached with

given number of particles in fewer particles in the vapor.
the vapor.

13-59
 Sample Problem 13.6 Using Raoults Law to Find P

PROBLEM: Find the vapor pressure lowering, DP, when 10.0 mL of

glycerol (C3H8O3) is added to 500. mL of water at 50.C.
At this temperature, the vapor pressure of pure water is
92.5 torr and its density is 0.988 g/mL. The density of
glycerol is 1.26 g/mL.
PLAN: We are given the vapor pressure of pure H2O, so to calculate
DP we just need the mole fraction of glycerol, Xglycerol.
volume (mL) of glycerol
multiply by density
mass (g) of glycerol
multiply by M
amount (mol) of glycerol
multiply by Pglycerol
mole fraction (X) of glycerol vapor pressure lowering
13-60
 Sample Problem 13.6

SOLUTION:
10.0 mL C3H8O3 x 1.26 g C3H8O3 x 1 mol C3H8O3
1 mL C3H8O3 92.09 g C3H8O3

= 0.137 mol C3H8O3

0.988 g H2O 1 mol H2O

500.0 mL H2O x x = 27.4 mol H2O
1 mL H2O 18.02 g H2O

0.137 mol C3H8O3 = 0.00498

Xglycerol =
0.137 mol C3H8O3 + 27.4 mol H2O

DP = 0.00498 x 92.5 torr = 0.461 torr

13-61
 Boiling Point Elevation

A solution always boils at a higher temperature than the

pure solvent.
This colligative property is a result of vapor pressure lowering.

The boiling point elevation is proportional to the molality

of the solution.

DTb = Kbm

Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant for the solvent.

13-62
 Figure 13.24 Boiling and freezing points of solvent and solution.

13-63
 Freezing Point Depression

A solution always freezes at a lower temperature than the

pure solvent.

The freezing point depression is proportional to the molality

of the solution.

DTf = Kfm

Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant for the solvent.

13-64
 Table 13.6 Molal Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point
Depression Constants of Several Solvents

Boiling Melting
Solvent Point (oC)* Kb Point Kf
(C/m) (C) (C/m)
Acetic acid 117.9 3.07 16.6 3.90

Benzene 80.1 2.53 5.5 4.90

Carbon disulfide 46.2 2.34 -111.5 3.83

Carbon tetrachloride 76.5 5.03 -23 30.

Chloroform 61.7 3.63 -63.5 4.70

Diethyl ether 34.5 2.02 -116.2 1.79

Ethanol 78.5 1.22 -117.3 1.99

Water 100.0 0.512 0.0 1.86
*At 1 atm.

13-65
 Sample Problem 13.7 Determining Boiling and Freezing Points
of a Solution
PROBLEM: You add 1.00 kg of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) antifreeze to
4450 g of water in your cars radiator. What are the
boiling and freezing points of the solution?
PLAN: We need to find the molality of the solution and then calculate
the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
mass (g) of solute
divide by M

amount (mol) of solute

divide by kg of solvent
molality (m)
Tb + DTb DTb = Kbm DTf = Kfm Tf - DTf

Tb(solution) DTb DTf Tf(solution)

13-66
 Sample Problem 13.7

SOLUTION:

1.00x103 g C2H6O2 x 1 mol C2H6O2

= 16.1 mol C2H6O2
62.07 g C2H6O2

16.1 mol C2H6O2

molality = = 3.62 m C2H6O2
4.450 kg H2O

DTb = 3.62 m x 0.512C/m = 1.85C

Tb(solution) = 100.00 + 1.85 = 101.85C

DTf = 3.62 m x 1.86C/m = 6.73C

Tb(solution) = 0.00 - 6.73 = -6.73C

13-67
 Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the movement of solvent particles from a

region of higher to a region of lower concentration through
a semipermeable membrane.

Solvent will always flow from a more dilute solution to a

more concentrated one.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that must be applied to
prevent the net flow of solvent.

= MRT M = molarity
R = 0.0821 atmL/molK
T = Kelvin temperature

13-68
 Figure 13.25 The development of osmotic pressure.

13-69
 Sample Problem 13.8 Determining Molar Mass from Osmotic
Pressure
PROBLEM: Biochemists have discovered more than 400 mutant
varieties of hemoglobin, the blood protein that carries O2.
A physician dissolves 21.5 mg of one variety in water to
make 1.50 mL of solution at 5.0C. She measures an
osmotic pressure of 3.61 torr. What is the molar mass of
the protein?
PLAN: We convert to atm and T to degrees K and calculate
molarity from osmotic pressure. We can then determine the
molar mass using the number of moles and the known mass.
(atm)
= MRT

M (mol/L)
convert to mol divide mass (g) by moles
amount (mol) of solute M (g/mol)

13-70
 Sample Problem 13.8

SOLUTION:
1 atm
3.61 torr x
M= = 760 torr = 2.08 x10-4 M
RT
(0.0821 Latm/molK)(278.15 K)

2.08 x10-4 mol x 1L = 3.12x10-7 mol

1L 103 mL

21.5 mg x 1g = 0.0215 g
103 mg

0.0215 g = 6.89x104 g/mol

M=
3.12x10-7 mol

13-71
 Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

For a volatile nonelectrolyte, the vapor of the solution

contains both solute and solvent.

The presence of each volatile component lowers the

vapor pressure of the other, since each one lowers the
mole fraction of the other.

For such a solution, the vapor will have a higher mole

fraction of the more volatile component.
The vapor has a different composition than the solution.

13-72
 Strong Electrolyte Solutions
A strong electrolyte dissociates completely to form ions.
Each mole of solute gives more than 1 mol of dissolved
particles.
The formula of the compound indicates the expected
number of particles in solution.
Each mol of NaCl is expected to give 2 moles of dissolved ions,

The vant Hoff factor takes into account the dissociation

of a strong electrolyte to predict the effect on the solution.

measured value for electrolyte solution

i =
expected value for nonelectrolyte solution

13-73
 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions

For vapor pressure lowering: DP = i(Csolute x Posolvent)

For boiling point elevation: DTb = i(bm)

For freezing point depression: DTf = i(fm)

For osmotic pressure: = i(MRT)

13-74
 Figure 13.26
Nonideal behavior of
strong electrolyte
solutions.

Ions in solution may remain clustered

near ions of opposite charge, creating
an ionic atmosphere. The ions do not
act independently, and the effective
concentration of dissolved particles is
less than expected.

13-75
 Figure 13.27 An ionic atmosphere model for nonideal behavior of
electrolyte solutions.

Ions may remain clustered together in solution, forming an ionic

atmosphere. This effect is greater for a more concentrated solution.

13-76
 Sample Problem 13.9 Depicting Strong Electrolyte Solutions

PROBLEM: A 0.952-g sample of magnesium chloride dissolves in

100. g of water in a flask.

(a) Which scene depicts the solution best?

(b) What is the amount (mol) represented by each green sphere?
(c) Assuming the solution is ideal, what is its freezing point (at 1 atm)?

13-77
 Sample Problem 13.9

PLAN: (a) We find the numbers of cations and anions per formula unit
from the name and compare it with the three scenes.
(b) We convert the given mass to amount (mol), and use the
answer from part (a) to find the moles of chloride ions. We
can then determine the number of moles per sphere.
(c) We find the molality (m) from the data provided and use it to
calculate DTf for the solution.

SOLUTION:
(a) The formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2. Only scene A has 1
Mg2+ for every 2 Cl- ions.

13-78
 Sample Problem 13.9

(b) The solution contains 0.952 g of MgCl2 in 100. g of water.

0.952 g MgCl2 x 1 mol MgCl2

= 0.0100 mol MgCl2
95.21 g MgCl2

Every 1 mol of MgCl2 forms 1 mol Mg2+ and 2 mol Cl- so

there should be 0.0200 mol Cl- ions. There are 8 green spheres :

0.0200 mol Cl- ions

= 2.50x10-3 mol/sphere
8 green spheres

13-79
 Sample Problem 13.9

(c) Assuming an ideal solution, i = 3 for MgCl2 since there are 3 ions
per formula unit.
0.0100 mol MgCl2
molality = = 0.100 m MgCl2
1 kg
100. g x
1000 g

DTf = i(Kfm) = 3(1.86C/m x 0.100 m) = 0.558C

Tf = 0.000C 0.558C = -0.558C

13-80
 Figure 13.28 Fractional distillation in petroleum refining.

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 Figure 13.29a Osmotic pressure and cell shape.

A red blood cell in an isotonic solution has its normal shape.

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 Figure 13.29b Osmotic pressure and cell shape.

A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of particles than

the cell. A cell in a hypotonic solution absorbs water and swells
until it bursts.

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 Figure 13.29c Osmotic pressure and cell shape.

A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of dissolved particles

than the cell. If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water moves
out of the cell, causing it to shrink.

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 Table 13.7 Types of Colloids

Dispersed Dispersing
Colloid Type Substance Medium Example(s)

Aerosol Liquid Gas Fog

Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke

Foam Gas Liquid Whipped cream

Solid foam Gas Solid Marshmallow
Emulsion Liquid Liquid Milk

Solid emulsion Liquid Solid Butter

Sol Solid Liquid Paint; cell fluid

Solid sol Solid Solid Opal

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 Figure 13.30 Light scattering and the Tyndall effect.

The narrow, barely visible light Sunlight is scattered by dust in

beam that passes through a air.
solution (left), is scattered and
broadened by passing through
a colloid (right).

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 Figure 13.31 The Nile delta (reddish-brown area).

At the mouths of rivers, colloidal clay particles coalesce into muddy deltas.

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 Chemical Connections
Figure B13.1 The typical steps in municipal water treatment.

Figure B13.1

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 Chemical Connections
Figure B13.2 Ion exchange to remove hard-water cations.

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 Chemical Connections
Figure B13.3 Reverse osmosis to remove ions.

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