STRESS ANALYSIS

The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure

safety against failure of the Piping System by verifying the

structural integrity against the loading conditions, both

external and internal, expected to occur during the lifetime

of the system in the plant. This is to be undertaken with the

most economic considerations.

 Objectives of stress Analysis are to:

Ensure that the stresses in the piping components in the

system are within the Code allowable limits.

Nozzle loading on the connected equipment are within the

allowable limits

Hanger and Support design data & Loads and moments on

the supporting structures.
The steps involved in the stress analysis can be listed as ..

Identify the potential loads that the piping system

would encounter during the life of the plant.
Relate each of these loads to the stresses and strains
developed.
Get the cumulative effect of the potential loads on
the system.
Check the analysis results with respect to the
allowable limits
If the allowable limits are not known, Decide the
allowable limits that the system can withstand
without failure.
After the system is designed, to ensure that the
stresses and deflections are within the safe limits.
Types of loads

All the American code for Pressure Piping classify the loads
mainly into three types.

Sustained Loads: Those due to forces present during

normal operation

Occasional Loads: Those present during rare

intervals of operations

Expansion Loads: Those due to expansion of

pipe for temperature variations
 Displacement stresses.
A piping system will undergo dimensional changes with any
change in temperature. If it is constrained from free
expansion or contraction, it will be displaced from it
unrestrained position causing strain and stresses. The system
could behave either balanced or unbalanced under such
conditions.
a) Balanced System :- Displacement strains are well
distributed and not excessive at any point. Layout of the
system should aim at such condition, which is assumed
in flexibility analysis methods provided in the code.
b) Unbalanced System :- In an unbalanced system
stress cannot be considered proportional to displacement
through out a piping system in which an excessive
amount of strain may occur in a realized portion of the
system. Unbalance may result from
 i) Highly stressed small pipe run in series with
large or relatively stiff pipe runs.

ii) Local reduction in size or wall thickness.

iii) Line configuration in a system of uniform

size in which the expansion or contraction
must be absorbed largely in short offset.

Unbalance must be avoided by design and layout of piping system.

If unbalance cannot be avoided the designer shall use appropriate
analytical methods as specified in the code to assure adequate
flexibility.
There are other factors that influence the stress as well.

They are:

Wind load
Seismic load
Relief valve forces
Fluid hammer
Settlement
Equipment vibration
Weight of attachments
Weight of contents
 As per the ASME B 31.1, basic allowable material
stress at the hot (operating/design) temperature (Sh) is
defined as minimum of

i. 1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at

operating temperature
ii. 1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at
room temperature
iii. 5/8 of the yield strength of the material at operating
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steels)
iv. 5/8 of the yield strength of the material at room
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel) and
v. 100% of the average stress for a 0.01% creep rate per
1000 hrs.
TIME DEPENDENT STRESSES

Time dependent allowable stress is usually

related to the creep rupture strength at high
temperature. At temperature above 1/3 of the
melting point, most metals will exhibit creep in
standard tensile test, if the load is kept constant
the specimen will continue to deform with time.
Under constant load, the rate of creep strain will
decrease initially to a steady state and later will
increase rapidly until it fails due to creep rupture.
 The code uses a time dependant allowable
stress, which is the smallest of 67% of the average
stress to cause creep rupture in 1,00,000 hrs, 80% of
the minimum stress to cause rupture in 1,00,000 hrs
or 100% of the stress to give 0.01% of creep rate per
hour
 The self limiting stress in piping system are
essentially cyclic and the initial hot stresses, if they are
of sufficient magnitude, will decrease with time because
of the plastic strains and will reappear as a stress of
reverse direction when the pipe cools. This phenomenon
forms the basic difference between the self-limiting
stresses and the sustained stresses.
 The degree of self-springing will depend on
the magnitude of the initial hot stresses and the
temperature, so that while the hot stresses will
gradually decrease with time, the sum of hot and cold
stresses will stay the same. This sum is called the
EXPANSION STRESS RANGE. This leads us to
the selection of an ALLOWABLE EXPANSION
STRESS RANGE.
 Self-springing occurs only when the system is subjected
to higher temperatures. For the expected strain if the modulus of
elasticity at this high temperature is used to back calculate stress,
the stress value will be lower than when it is calculated using
modulus of elasticity value at lower temperature (cold condition).
That is, stress value is higher when material properties in cold
condition are used. This provides a built in safety in design.
Hence the stresses are calculated using the cold modulus of
elasticity. This is a very important point to note. Actual stresses
under hot condition would be less than the calculated stresses.
When difference in elastic modulus within a piping
system will significantly affect the stress distribution, the
resulting displacement stress shall be computed based on the
actual elastic modulus and then multiplied by the ratio of the
elastic modulus used in the analysis to the modulus at the
ambient temperature.
 ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE

The failure modes that the piping code addresses are

excessive plastic deformation or bursting; plastic instability
or incremental collapse due to cycling in the plastic range
and fatigue which may be developed in a system as its
temperature is raised from the lowest to the highest that it
will experience in service or when it is shut down. Each of
this failure, modes is caused by a different type of stress and
loading. However Fatigue failure is recognized by the code
as the most likely mode of failure of the component and
place the limit on the maximum stress which may be
developed in a system as temperature is raised from lowest
to highest that will experience in service or when it is shut
down.
 For materials below the creep ranges, the allowable
stresses are 62.5% of the yield stress, so that a conservative
estimate of the limit of the bending stress at which plastic
flow starts at an elevated temperature is 1.6 (100/62.5) times
the allowable stress and by the same reasoning, 1.6 Sc will
be the stress at which flow would take place at the minimum
temperature. Hence the sum of these stresses represents the
MAXIMUM STRESS RANGE to which the system would
be subjected to, without the flow occurring in either hot or
cold condition.
Therefore,
Smax = 1.6 Sc + 1.6 Sh = 1.6 (Sc + Sh)
But the Power piping design code ASME B 31.1 limit the
stress range to 78% of the yield stress which gives a total
stress range of

S Allowable = 1.6 x 0.78 (Sc + Sh)

= 1.25 (Sc + Sh)
From this total stress range 1 Sh is reserved for the
longitudinal stresses developed due to loading such as
pressure, weight and other sustained loading, giving
the allowable stress range for flexibility as

S Allowable = 1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh

The above value does not consider the excessive cyclic

conditions.
 The code allows it by multiplying by a stress range
reduction factor. Accordingly, ASME B 31.1 in clause
102.3.2(c) specify the Allowable Expansion Stress Range as :

Sa = f(1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh)

Where,
Sa = Allowable Expansion Stress Range
Sc = Basic Allowable Stress at minimum metal temperature
during the displacement cycle under analysis.
Sh = Basic Allowable Stress at maximum metal Temperature
during the displacement cycle under analysis.
[The value of Sc & Sh are available in Table A1 :ASME B31.1]

f = Stress range reduction factor for displacement cycle

conditions for the total number of cycles over the expected life
 The factor f has a value of 1.0 for situation where
total number of cycles is 7000 or less. This represents one
cycle per day for nearly 20 years, which is a common
design parameter. Further, if we look at endurance curve for
carbon steel and low alloy steel available in the ASME
Section VIII Division 2, Pressure Vessel Code, it can be
seen that at some point in the vicinity of 7000 cycles, the Sc
+ Sh limitation intersects the fatigue curve.
The code value of f in table 102.3.2 (c) (B 31.1) is as
follows:
 Stress Range Reduction Factor f
Cycles N Factor f

7,000 or less 1.0

over 7,000 to 14,000 0.9

over 14,000 to 22,000 0.8

over 22,000 to 45,000 0.7

over 45,000 to 1,00,000 0.6

over 1,00,000 to 2,00,000 0.5

over 2,00,000 to 7,00,000 0.4

over 7,00,000 to 20,00,000 0.3

This applies essentially to non corroded piping. Corrosion

can decrease the cycle life. Therefore, corrosion resistant
material should be considered where large number of stress
cycle is anticipated.
 Effect of sustained loads on fatigue strength

If the alternating stress is plotted against the

cycle to failure, it can be seen that the mean stress has
an effect on the endurance strength of the material. As
the mean stress increases, the maximum permissible
absolute stress (Sa + Sm) increases, while the
permissible alternating stress decreases. The relation
between the allowable alternative stress and the
average stress follows the Soderberg line, which
correlates fairly well with test data of ductile
materials.
 Alternating Stress Axis
Design Limit

Sa from endurance curve for

completely alternating stress

Compressive SY
Tensile SY

Mean Stress Axis

The equation for the Soderberg line is

Sa (Allowed) = Sa(for R=1) x (1-Sm/SYield)
where, R = Smin / Smax
Sa = Smax - Smin / 2
Sm = Smax + Smin / 2
When the basic allowable stress at maximum expected metal
temperature (Sh) is greater than the sum of the longitudinal
stresses due to pressure, weight and other sustained loading
(SL) the difference between them may be added to the term
0.25 Sh in the equation for SA.

In that case the allowable stress range will be

S A = f [ 1.25 (S c + S h ) - S L ]
 CODES FOR LIMITING VALUES OF TERMINAL
FORCES AND MOMENTS

1. Centrifugal pumps - API 610 / ISO 5199

2. Positive displacement pumps - API 676
3. Centrifugal compressors - API 617
4. Reciprocating compressors - API 618
5. Steam turbines - NEMA SM 23
6. Air cooled heat exchangers - API 661
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers- Manf. Specific.
8. Fired heaters - Manf. Specific.
9. Flat bottom welded storage
tanks - API 650
10. For other static equipment such as Reactors, vessels and
tanks interaction with the fabrication engineer is required to
establish that the local stress developed due to nozzle
loadings are within the acceptable limits.
The forces and moments acting on the pump flanges due to

pipe loads can cause minimum alignment of the pump and

driver shafts, deformation and overstressing of pump casing or

overstressing of fixing bolts between the pump and the base

plate.
 Steam Turbines

NEMA SM 23 requires that the forces and

moments acting on steam turbines due to the steam
inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections should be
evaluated by simple set of force/moment calculation
similar to centrifugal compressors.
Static Equipment External forces and moments on
nozzles

Each nozzle, 2 NB and larger, for columns, drums and shell &
tube heat exchangers constructed out of steel or alloy is
recommended to be designed to withstand forces and moments
from the thermal expansion and sustained loading from the
piping as per the following criteria. These forces and moments
shall be considered to be acting at the intersection of nozzle
and shell in the corroded condition. A total of 7000 full
temperature cycles shall be considered for the expected life of
the equipment.
DESIGN CASES TO BE CONSIDERED

1. NORMAL OPERATION
2. STEAM OUT
3. START-UP
4. CRASH SHUT-DOWN
5. ANY OTHER NEAR GOVERNING
CONDITIONS
 Data required for flexibility calculations

The following data will be required for the

flexibility calculations if it is carried out manually or
by the use of software. It is therefore prudent to have
this ready before starting.

The direction of coordinates shall be fixed as below:

1. Code of Practice
2. Basic Material of Construction of Pipe
3. Ambient / Installation temperature
4. Number of Thermal Cases
5. Design Temperature (See Note)
6. Design Pressure
7. Outside diameter of Pipe
8. Type of construction of pipe
9. Nominal Thickness of Pipe
10. Manufacturing tolerance
11. Corrosion allowance
12. Pipe Weight
13. Insulation Weight
14. Specific Gravity of Contents
15. Youngs Modulus at Ambient/Installation Temperature
16. Youngs Modulus at Design Temperature
17. Thermal Expansion at Design Temperature
18. Allowable stress at Ambient/ Installation temperature
19. Allowable stress at Design temperature
20. Bend radius and type of bend
21. Branch connection type
22. Weight of attachments - Valves and Specialities
23. Terminal movements with directions

Note: The code states that the design temperature shall be assumed
to be the same as fluid temperature unless calculations or test
supports the use of other data.
Method Of Flexibility Analysis

ASME B31.1, Clause 119.7.1(A3) specifies that no formal

analysis is required in systems which are of uniform size,
have no more than two anchors, no intermediate restraints
and fall within the empirical equation.

Cont.
where,

D = The outside diameter of pipe in inch (or mm)

Y = resultant displacement between the anchors to
be absorbed by the piping system, in. (mm)
L = developed length of pipe (total length of pipe
taken along the piping longitudinal axes), ft (m)
U = anchor distance (length of straight line between
the anchors), ft (m)
EC = modulus of elasticity at room temperature, psi (kPa)
SA = allowable displacement stress range
SAMPLE PROBLEM

For example, consider the following pipe routing

Pipe - 6" (150 mm NB) Sch. 40

ASTM A106 Gr.B
Design Temperature - 400 F (2040C)
Step 1:

To establish the anchor to anchor distance U

Total length in X direction = 35

Total length in Y direction = 30

Total length in Z direction = 25 + 20

= 45

U x2 y2 z 2
352 30 2 452
64.42'
Step 2
To determine value of L.
L = x y + z = 35 + 30 + 45 = 110 ft.
Step 3
To calculate resultant total displacement Y
From Appendix C, ASME B 31.3
Linear Expansion between 70F and 400F.

e 2.8"/ 100 ft.

2.8 x 35
x 0.98"
100
2.8 x 30
y 0.84"
100
2.8 x 45
z 1.26"
100
Y x y z
2 2 2

0.98 2
0.84 2
1.26 2

1.804"
 Step 4

DY
K
(L - U )2
6.625 x 1.804

(110 - 64.42 )2
0.0057
< 0.03
since K K 1 the configuration is safe
Please note that no general proof can be offered that this

equation will yield accurate and conservative results. It is

not applicable to systems used under severe cyclic

conditions. There is no assurance that the terminal

reactions will be acceptably low, even if the system satisfies

the above equation.

Quick Check Method

Min. h 0.0025 DoLT ft

Min L = h2 / 0.0025DoT ft.

Where ;
Do = Outside diameter in inch. (to nearest )
T = Temp. difference F
(Design Temp. Installation. Temp.)
Check previous Layout

D 6 . 625 " 7 "

o

L 50 '
T 400 - 70 330
h 0 .0025 x 7 x 50 x 330
16 . 99 '
 b

a c

a c

1
b 1
c

b c

a d
 CODE STRESS EQUATIONS

ASME B 31.1

ASME B 31.1 specifies under clause 104.8 that

to validate a design the complete piping system must
be analyzed between anchors for the effects of thermal
expansion, weight, other sustained loads and other
occasional loads.
 STRESS DUE TO SUSTAINED LOADS

The effects of pressure, weight and other

sustained mechanical load must meet the requirements of
the following equation.

P Do 0.75 i MA
SL = + Sh in USCS units
4 tn Z

P Do 1000(0.75 i) MA
SL = + Sh in SI units
4 tn Z
Where;
SL = Sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
pressure, weight and other sustained loads,
psi (KPa)
i = Stress intensification factor, The product 0.75i
shall never be taken as less than 1.
MA= resultant moment due to weight and
sustained loads, in-lb (mm N)
= M x M y M z
2 2 2

Z = Section Modulus, in3 (mm3)

tn = Nominal Thickness, in (mm)
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating temp.,
psi (KPa)
 THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE

The effects of thermal expansion must meet the

requirements of the following equation.

i Mc
SE = SA + f (Sh SL) In USCS units
Z

1000 i Mc
SE = SA + f (Sh SL) In SI units
Z
Where,

SE = Expansion stress range psi (KPa)

Mc = Range of resultant moments due to thermal
expansion, in- lb (mm N)

= M x
2
M y
2
M z
2

SA = Allowable stress range psi (KPa)

 STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL LOADS.

The effects of pressure, weights, other sustained loads

and occasional loads including earthquake must meet the
requirements of the following equation.
P Do 0.75 i MA 0.75 i MB
+ + KSh in USCS units.
4 tn Z Z

P Do 1000(0.75 i) MA 1000(0.75 i) MB
+ + KSh in SI units.
4 tn Z Z
Where,
K = 1.15 for occasional loads acting less than 10%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
K = 1.2 for occasional loads acting less than 1%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
MB = Resultant moment loading on cross section
due to occasional loads.

If calculation of moments due to earthquake is

required, use only one half of the earthquake
moment range. Effect of anchor displacement
due to earthquake may be excluded from the
equation if they are covered in Thermal Expansion
stress range calculation.
 COMPARISON OF CODES
The difference in approach between ASME B31.1 & 31.3
Stress increase due to occasional loads are different in
each code.
Allowable stresses are different for each code.
ASME B 31.3 include Fax in the stress calculation due to
sustained load where as ASME B 31.1 neglects all forces
ASME B 31.3 calculation methods are undefined for
sustained and occasional loads whereas ASME B 31.1 is
explicit for the same.
For calculation of stresses due to sustained loads ASME
B31.3 neglects torsion where as ASME B31.1 includes it.
ASME B31.1 intensifies torsion where as ASME B 31.3
does not
CAUTION

The pipe thickness has no significant effect on

bending stress due to thermal expansion but it affects end
reaction in direct ratio so overstress cannot be nullified by
increasing the thickness. On the contrary this makes the
matter worse by increasing end reactions.
For simple cantilever, the deflection is given by the
formula
P L3
y =
3EI
3EyI
Hence, P =
L3
E, y, L remaining the same, P = k I
3E y
where k =
L3
For 6(150 mm) NB Sch. 40 pipe
I = 1170 cm4
Z = 139 cm3
For 6 (150 mm) NB Sch. 80 pipe
I = 1686 cm4
Z = 200 cm3

Therefore,

Sch. 40 Sch. 80
Load P 1170 k 1686 k
Moment M 1170 k L1686 k L
Stress = M/Z 8.4 k L 8.4 k L

Form the above it can be seen that although

the stress remains the same, the forces and moments
increase with the increase in thickness of the pipe.
Where the piping system encounters large end
reactions or detrimental over strain and it lacks
built in changes in the direction to absorb the
same, the Piping Engineer should consider
adding flexibility by one or more of the following
means; addition of bends, loops or offsets, swivel
joints, corrugated pipes, expansion joints or other
means permitting angular, rotational or axial
movements. Suitable anchors shall be provided to
resist the end forces.
 COLD SPRING

Piping Engineer may also provide cold cut or cold

spring to limit the value of stress and moment. As per
clause 119.9 of ASME B 31.1, The beneficial effect of
judicious cold springing in assisting a system to attain its
most favorable position as it is the intentional
deformation of piping during assembly to produce a
desired initial displacement and stress.

No credit for cold spring is permitted in the

stress range calculation since the service life of a
system is affected more by the range of stress
variation than by magnitude of stress at a given time.
ASME B 31.1 clause 119.10.1 gives the formula for calculation of
maximum reaction or moment for two anchor piping system at
design temperature, with no cold spring or an equal percentage of
cold springing in all the directions as below
Rh = R(1-2/3 C)Eh/Ec

Where, Rh = Estimated instantaneous maximum reaction force or

moment at design temperature.
R = maximum reaction for full expansion range based on
Ec which assumes the most severe condition
Ec = Modulus of elasticity at installation temperature.
Eh = Modulus of elasticity at design temperature.
C = Cold spring factor from 0 for no cold spring to 1.0 for
100% cold spring.

The factor 2/3 is based on experience, which shows that specified

cold spring cannot be fully assured even with elaborate
precautions.
The value of reaction forces or moments at the
installation temperature is given by :

Rc = -CR or -C1R which ever is greater

C1 = 1 - (ShEc / SEEh)
Rc = Estimated instantaneous maximum reaction force or
moment at design temperature.
SE = computed Thermal Expansion stress range
Sh = basic material allowable stress at design temperature