CHAPTER 3

BASIC METER IN AC MEASUREMENTS

1
 LECTURE CONTENTS

3.1 Sinus Waveform

3.2 Electrodynamometer Movement
3.3 Iron-Vane Meter Movement
(Moving-Iron Meter)
3.4 Voltmeter used with Half-Wave
and Full-Wave Rectification
3.5 Ammeter used with Full-Wave
Rectification
3.6 Power Measurement
3.7 Power Factor Correction
3.8 Wattmeter 2

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3.1 Sinus Waveform

3
 Sinus Waveform
• Sinusoidal waveform especially sine
and cosine waves is commonly
used for alternating current (ac) and
alternating voltage representative
and shown in Figure 3.1.
• The time required for a sine wave to
complete one full cycle is called the
period (T).
• Frequency ( f ) is the number of
cycles that a sine wave completes
in one second. 4

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 Figure 3.1: Sinusoidal waveforms 5

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 Sinus Waveform
• The general expression for a sine wave
is:
x(t) = A sin t ---(3.1)

where: x(t) = an instantaneous value (v or i)

A = amplitude or peak value of waveform

 = angular frequency

t = time (in seconds)

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 Sinus Waveform
• The instantaneous values of a sine wave
voltage (or current) are different at
different points along the curve.
• Having negative and positive values.
• The peak value of a sine wave is the
value of voltage or current at the positive
or negative maximum with respect to
zero.
• The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave is
the voltage or current from the positive
peak to the negative peak. 7

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 Sinus Waveform
• The rms (root mean square) value,
or effective value, of a sinusoidal
voltage is equal to the dc voltage
that produces the same amount of
heat in a resistance, as does the
sinusoidal voltage.
• The average value is the total area
under the half-cycle curve divided
by the distance in radians of the
curve along the horizontal axis. 8

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 Related Formulas;
VP
Vrms 
2 ---(3.2) For all cases
I
I rms  P
2
2 Vp
Vdc 
 --- (3.3) For full-wave rectifier
2 I p
I dc 
 AND
Vp
Vdc 

--- (3.4) For half-wave rectifier
Ip
I dc 

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 3.2
Electrodynamometer
Movement

10
 Electrodynamometer
Movement
• Similar to the D'Arsonval or PMMC dc
movement except that a pair of stationary
coils replaces the usual permanent
magnet and two coils replace the single
movable coil.
• Figure 3.2 shows the two pairs of coils
connected in series.
• When a voltage is applied to terminals A
& B, a current will be flowing through the
two coils.
• The interaction of the two magnetic fields
will cause the pivoted coils to rotate.
• The force is proportional to the current in
the moving coil and the magnetic field.11

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 Electrodynamometer
Movement

Figure 3.2: The electrodynamometer

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 Electrodynamometer
Movement
• Since the magnetic field is proportional to
the same current supplied to the
stationary coils, the force is proportional
to the current squared (I2).
• The angular position of the pointer is
directly proportional to the average value
of I2.
• The scale can be calibrated to indicate
the square root of the deflection.
• The pointer therefore indicates the true
(RMS) or effective value.
• The circuit arrangement of an
electrodynamometer-type meter is shown
in Figure 3.3. 13

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 Electrodynamometer
Movement

14
Figure 3.3: The circuit arrangement of an electrodynamometer-type meter
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 Electrodynamometer
Movement
• The electrodynamometer is quite
accurate to 0.5 % or better of FSD, but it
is not very sensitive.
• It is not widely used as ammeter or
voltmeter but extensive use in the
measurement of power.
• Can also be used to measure dc voltages
and currents since the interaction of the
magnetic fields always causes an
upscale deflection, no matter which way
the current flows.
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3.3 Iron-Vane Meter
Movement (Moving-
Iron Meter)

16
 Iron-Vane Meter Movement
(Moving-Iron Meter)
• The iron vane employs the principle
of repulsion between two concentric
iron vanes, one fixed and the other
movable, both of which are placed
inside a coil, as shown in Figure 3.4.
• A pointer is attached to the movable
vane.

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 Iron-Vane Meter Movement
(Moving-Iron Meter)

Figure 3.4: Radial-type iron-vane movement

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 Iron-Vane Meter Movement
(Moving-Iron Meter)
• When current flows through the coil, the iron
vanes, being of a soft iron and in the magnetic
flux of the coil, become magnetized.
• For any particular direction of current flow
through the coils, the vanes become magnetized
with like poles on both ends.
• Since as poles repel, this force causes the
movable vane to rotate against the force exerted
by the restoring spring.
• The repulsion being always in the same
direction, regardless of the direction of the
current through the coil, the iron vane meter can
measure ac or dc.
• Although this meter can be used for dc, errors
are introduced due to the residue magnetism in
the vanes, which makes it impractical for use 19in
dc measurements.
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 Iron-Vane Meter Movement
(Moving-Iron Meter)
• Iron vane meters when used for ac
measurement have an accuracy of 0.5 % of
FSD and better.
• The excellent accuracy, the fact that no current
flows in the moving elements, its simplicity, and
its relatively low cost make this type of
movement popular in the measure of high-
power, low frequency ac voltages and currents.
• Due to its high magnetic reluctance, the iron
vane meter requires more power when other
meters and its therefore seldom used in low
power, high-resistance circuits.
• The high magnetic reluctance and large values
of stray capacitance limit this meter to very low
frequencies, normally less than 2,500 Hz. 20

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 3.4 Voltmeter used
with Half-Wave and
Full-Wave Rectification

21
 PMMC Instrument on AC
• The PMMC instrument is polarized, that is,
its terminals are identified as + and -, and
it must be connected correctly for positive
(on-scale) deflection to occur.
• When an alternating current with a very
low frequency is passed through a PMMC
instrument, the pointer tends to follow the
instantaneous level of the ac.
• As the current grows positively, the pointer
deflection increases to a maximum at the
peak of the ac.
• Then as the instantaneous current level
falls, the pointer deflection decreases
toward zero. 22

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 PMMC Instrument on AC
•
cont…
When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected
(off-scale) to the left of zero.
• This kind of pointer movement can occur only with ac
having a frequency of perhaps 0.1 Hz or lower.
• With the normal 50/60 Hz or higher supply frequencies,
the damping mechanism of the instrument and the
inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer from
following the changing instantaneous levels.
• Instead, the instrument pointer settles at the average
value of the current flowing through the moving coil.
• The average value of purely sinusoidal ac is zero.
• Therefore, a PMMC instrument connected directly to
measure 50/60 Hz ac indicates zero.
• It is important to note that although a PMMC instrument
connected to an ac supply may be indicating zero,
there can actually be a very large rms current flowing in
its coils.
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 Half-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter
• Half-wave rectification is employed in the ac
voltmeter circuit shown in Figure 3.5(a).
• RSH shunting the meter is included to cause a
relatively large current to flow through diode D1
(larger than the meter current) when the diode is
forward biased.
• This is to ensure that the diode is biased beyond
the knee and well into the linear range of its
characteristics.
• Diode D2 conducts during the negative half-cycles
of the input. When conducting, D2 causes a small
voltage drop (VF) across D1 and the meter, thus
preventing the flow of any significant reverse
leakage current through the meter via D1.
• Diode D2 also protects the meter against reverse
voltages.
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 Half-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter cont…

Figure 3.5(a): Half-wave rectification may be used with a PMMC

instrument and a multiplier resistor for ac voltage measurements. A
shunt resistor (RSH) is included to ensure a satisfactory rectifier
forward current level. The additional rectifier (D2) minimizes reverse
leakage current through D1.
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 Half-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter cont…
• The waveform of voltage developed
across the meter and RSH is a series
of positive half-cycles with
intervening spaces, as illustrated.
• In half-wave rectification,
Iav = 0.5(0.637 x Im).
• This must be taken into account in
the circuit design calculations.

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 Example 3.1
A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 A and
Rm = 1700  is used in the half-wave rectifier
voltmeter circuit illustrated in Figure 3.5(a).
The silicon diode (D1) must have a minimum
(peak) forward current of 100 A when the
measured voltage is 20% of FSD. The
voltmeter is to indicate 50 V rms at full scale.
Calculate the values of RS and RSH.

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 Example 3.1 solution
At FSD, Iav = 50 A

Meter peak current,

I av 50 A
Im    157 A
0.5  0.637 0.5  0.637

At 20% of FSD, diode peak current IF must at least 100 A, therefore at 100% of FSD,

I F  peak  
100%
100 A  500 A  applied peak voltage  Vm  peak   V F
I F  peak  
20% Rs
I F  peak   I m  I SH  peak  1.414V rms  V m  peak   V F
I F  peak  
I SH  peak   I F  peak   I m  500 A  157 A  343 A Rs
Vm  peak   I m Rm  157 A  1700  266.9 mV 1.414V rms  V m  peak   V F
Rs 
Vm  peak  I F  peak 
266.9 mV
RSH    778  1.414  50 V   266.9 mV  0.7 V
I SH  peak  343 A Rs 
500 A
R s  139.5 k
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 Example 3.2
In the half-wave rectifier shown in Figure 3.5(b),
diodes D1 and D2 have an average forward
resistance of 50  and are assumed to have an
infinite resistance in the reverse direction. Calculate
the following.
(a) The value of the multiplier resistance, Rs.
(b) The ac sensitivity.
(c) The equivalent dc sensitivity.
Rs D1 Im

IT ISH

D2 RSH Rm = 200 W
Ein
200 W Im = 100 mA
10 Vrms

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Figure 3.5(b)
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 Example 3.1 solution
(a) The value of the multiplier resistance, Rs.
E m 100A  200 
I SH    100 A
RSH 200 
I T  I SH  I m  100A  100 A  200A
E dc  0.45  E rms  0.45  10 V  4.5 V

The total resistance of the meter circuit is

E dc 4.5 V
RT    22.5 k
IT 200 A

The total resistance is made up of several separate resistances and is computed as

Rm RSH
RT  Rs  Rd 
Rm  RSH
Rm RSH 200  200
Rs  RT  Rd   22500  50   22.35 k
Rm  RSH 200  200

(b) The ac sensitivity.

RT 22500 
S ac    2250  / V
Range 10 V

(c) The equivalent dc sensitivity.

1 1 S ac 22500 
S dc    5000  / V S dc    5000  / V
I T 200 V 0.45 0.45 30

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 Half-Bridge Full-Wave
Rectifier Voltmeter
• The circuit in Figure 3.6 is that of an
ac voltmeter employing a half-bridge
full-wave rectifier circuit.
• The half-bridge name is applied
because two diodes and two resistors
are employed instead of the four
diodes used in a full-wave bridge
rectifier.
• This circuit passes full-wave rectified
current through the meter. 31

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 Half-Bridge Full-Wave
Rectifier Voltmeter cont…

Figure 3.6: Circuit of an ac voltmeter using a half-bridge full-wave rectifier. The

resistors in the half-bridge circuit appear in parallel with the PMMC instrument during
alternate half-cycles to ensure a satisfactory rectifier forward current.
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 Half-Bridge Full-Wave
Rectifier Voltmeter cont…
Operation:
• During the positive half-cycle of the input, diode
D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.
• Current flows from terminal 1 through D1 and
the meter (positive to negative), and then
through R2 to terminal 2.
• However, R1 is in parallel with the meter and R2,
which are connected in series.
• Therefore, much of the current flowing in D1
passes through R1, while only part of it flows
through the meter and R2.
• During the negative half-cycle of the input, D2 is
forward biased and D1 is reverse biased.
• Current now flows from terminal 2 through R1
and the meter, and through D2 to terminal 1.33
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 Half-Bridge Full-Wave
Rectifier Voltmeter cont…
• R2 is in parallel with the series-connected meter
and R1.
• Much of the diode current bypasses the meter
by flowing through R2.
• This arrangement forces the diodes to operate
beyond the knee of their characteristics and
helps to compensate for differences that might
occur in the characteristics of D1 and D2.

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 Full-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter
• The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit in
Figure 3.7 passes the positive half-cycles
of the sinusoidal input waveform and
inverts the negative half-cycles.
• When the input is positive, diodes D1 and
D4 conduct, it will causing current to flow
through the meter from top to bottom.
• When the input goes negative, D2 and D3
conduct, and current again flows through
the meter.
• The resulting current waveform is a series
of positive half-cycles without any
intervening spaces (see Figure 3.7).
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 Full-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter cont…

Figure 3.7: An ac voltmeter may be constructed of a PMMC instrument, a multiplier

resistor, and a full-wave bridge rectifier. The instrument scale is correct only for pure sine
waves.

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 Full-Wave Rectifier
Voltmeter cont…
• The rectifier voltmeter circuit in Figure 3.7 uses a
series-connected multiplier resistor to limit the
current flow through the PMMC instrument.
• The meter deflection is proportional to the average
current, which is 0.637 x peak current.
• The actual current (or voltage) to be indicated in ac
measurements is normally the rms quantity, which is
0.707 of the peak value, or 1.11 times the average
value.
• Since there are direct relationships between rms,
peak, and average values, the meter scale can be
calibrated to indicate rms volts.
• When other than pure sine waves are applied, the
voltmeter will not indicate the rms voltage. 37

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 Example 3.3
A PMMC instrument with FSD = 100 A and Rm = 1
k is to be employed as an ac voltmeter with FSD =
100 V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the bridge
rectifier circuit of Figure 3.7. Calculate the multiplier
resistance value required.

38
Figure 3.7
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 Example 3.1 solution
At FSD, the average current flowing through the PMMC instrument is

I av  100 A
Peak current,
I av 100 A
Im    157 A
0.637 0.637

Im 
 applied peak voltage -  rectifier volt drop 
total circuit resistance

Rectifier volts drop = 2VF (for D1 and D4 or D2 and D3)

Applied peak voltage = 1.414Vrms
1.414Vrms  2V F
Total circuit resistance = Rs + Rm Im 
Rs  Rm
1.414Vrms  2V F
Rs   Rm
Im

Rs 
1.414  100 V    2  0.7 V   1 k
157 A
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Rs  890.7 k
 Example 3.4
Calculate the pointer indications for the
voltmeter in Example 3.2, when the rms input
voltage is (a) 75 V and (b) 50 V.

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 Example 3.4 solution
a)
 1.414Vrms  2VF 
I av  0.637 I m  0.637 
 R s  Rm 
 1.414  75 V    2  0.7 V  
I av  0.637  
 890.7 k  1 k 
I av  75 A  0.75 FSD
b)
 1.414Vrms  2VF 
I av  0.637 I m  0.637 
 R s  Rm 
 1.414  50 V    2  0.7 V  
I av  0.637  
 890.7 k  1 k
I av  50 A  0.5 FSD
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3.5 Ammeter used
with Full-Wave
Rectification

42
 Ammeter used with Full-
Wave Rectification
• Like a dc ammeter, an ac ammeter must
have a very low resistance because it is
always connected in series with the circuit
in which current is to be measured.
• This low-resistance requirement means
that the voltage drop across the ammeter
must be very small, typically not greater
than 100 mV.
• However, the voltage drop across a diode
is 0.3 to 0.7 V, depending on whether the
diode is made from germanium or silicon.
When a bridge rectifier circuit is employed,
the total diode volt drop is 0.6 to 1.4 V.
• Clearly, a rectifier instrument is not suitable
for direct application as an ac ammeter. 43

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 Ammeter used with Full-
Wave Rectification cont…
• The use of a current transformer (Figure
3.8) gives the ammeter a low terminal
resistance and low voltage drop.
• The transformer also steps up the input
voltage (more secondary turns than
primary turns) to provide sufficient voltage
to operate the rectifiers and at the same
time it steps down the primary current to a
level suitable for measurement by a PMMC
meter.
• Since the transformer is used in an
ammeter circuit, the current transformation
44

©asmarashid 2006 ratio Ip/Is = Ns/Np is very important.

 Ammeter used with Full-
Wave Rectification cont…

Figure 3.8: ac ammeter circuit consisting of a current transformer, full-wave bridge

rectifier, and a PMMC instrument.

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 Ammeter used with Full-
Wave Rectification cont…
• A precise load resistor (RL in Figure 3.8) is
connected across the secondary winding of the
transformer.
• This is selected to take the portion of secondary
current not required by the meter.
• For example, suppose that the PMMC instrument
requires 100 A (average) for FSD, and the current
transformer has Ns = 2000 and Np = 5. If the rms
primary current is 100 mA, the secondary rms
current is

5 1
Is   100 mA  250 A or I s  av    250 A  225.2 A
2000 1.11

• Since the meter requires 100 A for FSD, the value

of RL is calculated to pass the remaining 125.2 A.
46

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 Ammeter used with Full-
Wave Rectification cont…
• The range of the instrument can be changed by
switching-in different values of load resistance, RL.
• Another method of range changing involves the
use of additional terminals (or taps) on the primary
winding to alter the number of primary turns, as
shown in Figure 3.8.

47
Figure 3.8
©asmarashid 2006
 Example 3.5

A rectifier ammeter with the circuit shown in

Figure 3.8 is to give FSD for a primary
current of 250 mA. The PMMC meter has
FSD = 1 mA and Rm = 1700 . The current
transformer has Ns = 500 and Np = 4. The
diodes each have VF = 0.7 V, and the series
resistance is Rs = 20 k. Calculate the
required value of RL.

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 Example 3.5 solution
Peak current, I av 1 mA
Im    1.57 mA
0.637 0.637
Transformer secondary peak voltage,
E m  I m  Rs  Rm   2VF  1.57 mA 20 k  1700    1.4 V  35.5 V

Or secondary voltage, E s   0.707  35.5 V  rms  25.1 V

rms meter current =
1.11I av  1.11 mA

Transformer rms secondary current,

NP 4
IS  IP  250 mA   2 mA
NS 500

I L  I S  I m  2 mA  1.11 mA  0.89 mA

ES 25.1 V
RL    28.2 k 49
I L 0.89 mA
©asmarashid 2006
 3.6 Power
Measurement

50
 Power Definition
Power is defined as the amount of work done in some
unit of time. Mathematically,
Power, P = work/time Watt ---(3.5)

where work in joules, time in seconds and unit of

power in watts (W). Meanwhile, electrical power is
given as follows,
P = work/time , but w = QV and t = Q/I ---(3.6)

where Q is charge in coulombs, V is potential different

in volts and I is current in amperes. Substituting
equation (3.6) into equation (3.5),
P = (QV)/(Q/I) = IV Watt ---(3.7)

Using Ohm’s law, two more equations can be derived.

P = I2R and P = E2/R ---(3.8)
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 Power in AC Circuit
There are three types of power in ac circuit, real
power (P – Watts), reactive power (Q – VARs) and
apparent power (S – Volt-Amperes). In any ac circuit
consist of resistor, inductor and/or capacitor; the
following terms are always true:

Total real power dissipated,

P = VI cos  (Watts) ---(3.9)
Reactive power delivered,
Q = VI sin  (VARs) ---(3.10)
Total apparent delivered,
|S| = VI = (P2 + Q2)½ (Volt-Amperes) ---(3.11)

Notice that, V and I must be in rms values, while  is

the power factor of circuit. 52

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3.7 Power Factor
Correction

53
 Power Factor Correction
• Most domestic loads (such as washing
machines, air conditioners, and
refrigerators) and industrial loads (such as
induction motors) are inductive and operate
at a low lagging power factor.
• Although the inductive nature of the load
cannot be changed, power factor of the load
can be increased by doing something.
• The process of increasing the power factor
without altering the voltage or current to the
original load is known as power factor
correction.
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©asmarashid 2006
 Example 3.7
R = 100 W

120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H

Figure 3.9: A circuit consists of resistor and inductor

From Figure 3.9, Table 3.9

Power factor (pf) = cos 45o = 0.707
Real power, P = 72 W
Reactive power, Q = 72 VARs
Apparent power, S = 102 VA 55

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 Example 3.7 solution
• In order to make the power factor into unity,
capacitors are added to the circuit as shown in
Figure 3.10, a capacitor of 26.5 F is added
(XC = 100 ). Figure 3.10.
R = 100 W

120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H

XC = 100 W
C = 26.5 mF
Figure 3.10: A circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor with power factor
56

©asmarashid 2006 correction

 Example 3.7 solution cont…
R = 100 W

120 V XL = 100 W
VS
60 Hz L = 0.265 H

XC = 100 W
C = 26.5 mF
Figure 3.10: A circuit consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor with power factor
correction
Table 3.10
Power factor (pf) = cos 0o = 1
Real power, P = 144 W
Reactive power, QXL = +144 VARs
Reactive power, QXC = -144 VARs
Reactive power, Q = QXL – QXC = 144 – 144 = 0 VARs 57

©asmarashid 2006
Apparent power, S = 144 VA
 Example 3.7 solution cont…
• This situation (Figure 3.10 and Table 3.10) is called
power factor correction, which must be used in
large installations where there are many inductive
loads present.

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 Quiz 3

• Explain the concept of power in AC.

Show them in triangle form in terms
of Real Power, Reactive Power,
Apparent Power and Complex
Power.
• What is the power factor?
• Explain the category of loads which
can causes leading and lagging pf?
• How to manage for leading pf. Give
your suggestion to correct the pf.

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3.8 Wattmeter

60
 Electrodynamometer
Wattmeter
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter employs a
current circuit and a potential circuit.
• The current circuit consists of two fixed coils of
heavy wire that are connected in series with the
line.
• The potential circuit consists of the two moving
coils, usually wound with much smaller-diameter
wire, connected in series with a high-valued non-
inductive resistance, and placed across the line.
• Figure 3.11(b) also shows the simple connection of
the wattmeter to measure power in a single-phase
circuit.
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter can be used to
measure power in a DC as well as in a AC circuit
irrespective of the waveform.

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 Electrodynamometer
Wattmeter cont…

Figure 3.11: Alternating current and direct current wattmeter

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 Measurement of Power in
Three-Phase Circuits
• The power in three-phase circuits can
be measured in a variety of ways. Two
of the most common methods are
i) Three-wattmeter Method
ii) Two-wattmeter Method

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 Three-wattmeter Method
• The connection for the measurement of the total
average power to delta or star-connected loads is
shown in Figures 3.12(a) and 3.12(b).
• The three-wattmeter readings add up to give the total
power supplied.
• The potential coils are measuring Vph and the current
coils Iph. The total power given by:

PT = 3 x Eph x Iph x cos  ---(3.12)

• where the load is balanced, a single wattmeter will

do - merely by measuring power to one phase and
then multiplying by three.
• The three-wattmeter method is not always practical
because very often the junction points to a delta or
star are not accessible.
• In these circumstances, it is more convenient to64use
©asmarashid 2006 the two-wattmeter method.
 Three-wattmeter Method
cont…

Figure 3.12: Three-wattmeter method of power measurement in a three-phase circuit

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 Two-wattmeter Method
• The two-wattmeter method can be
used in a three-wire system, delta-
connected or star-connected and
balanced or unbalanced loads.
• For a four-wire system, three
wattmeters are needed.
• The connection of the two-wattmeter
method is shown in Figure 3.13.

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 Two-wattmeter Method
cont…

Figure 3.13: Two-wattmeter method of power measurement

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 Wattmeter specifications
• Normally inexpensive wattmeters have
accuracies of +3%.
• More accurate instrument has an
accuracy of 0.25% of full-scale
deflection.
• All can be used to measure DC and
AC power, in some cases up to 2500
Hz.
• More are multirange instruments with
a high and low ranges depending on
the voltage range used.
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GAME OVER

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