• STUDY AND THINKING SKILLS

• WRITING IN THE DISCIPLINE

• SPEECH AND ORAL COMMUNICATION
• PHILIPPINE LITERATURE
• MASTER WORKS OF THE WORLD
LINGUISTICS
• MORPHOLOGY
• PHONOLOGY
• PHONETICS
• SEMANTICS
 Linguistics

Morphology:
Word Formation Processes
(Yule, 2003 & Jarvie, 1993)
What’s Morphology?
• Morphology refers to the study of how
words are created in a language

• There are two processes involved in

Morphology: Inflection and Word
Formation
Morphology
• Lexicon- mental dictionary of words in any
language
• Different types of information encoded in our
mental dictionary
1. Pronunciation and meaning
2. Grammatical category
3. Orthography/ spelling
Types of words
• Content Words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
most adverbs)
- carry the content or the meaning of a sentence
and are open-class words
• Function Words (articles, auxilliaries,
demonstratives, quantifiers, prepositions,
pronouns, conjunctions)
- do not posses clear lexical meaning but instead
help to express grammatical relationships with
other words within a sentence, or specify the
attitudes or mood of the speaker
Morphemes and Their Compositions

Morphemes- minimal unit of meaning or

grammatical function that are used to form words
Types:
1. Free morphemes- simple words that cannot be
broken down further into meaningful units
2. Bound morphemes- morphemes that are
attached to other forms to generate complex
words
1. Free morphemes
1.1 Lexical morphemes- consists of nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that all
transmit the content of the messages
speakers want to convey
1.2 Functional morphemes- contain mainly
the functional words in English such as
articles, prepositions, conjunctions,
quantifiers and pronouns
2. Bound Morphemes
2.1 Derivational morphemes-create new words or
to make words of a different grammatical class
from the stem (ex. Normal + ize)
2.2 Inflectional Morphemes- used to show some
aspects of the grammatical function of a word is
singular or plural, whether it is past tense or not
and whether it is a comparative or possessive
form
What are Inflection and Word Formation?

• Inflection refers to the change in the base

form of a word (root or stem)

• The base form of a noun is the singular

form (e.g. cat); for an adjective the base
form (old) and for a verb the base form is
the infinitive or imperative (speak)
 Examples of Inflection
• Apple apples
• House houses

• Sad sadder saddest

• Big bigger biggest

• Learn learned learning

 Word Formation Processes
a. Coinage
b. Borrowing
c. Compounding
d. Blending
e. Clipping
f. Backformation
g. Conversion
h. Acronyms
i. Affixation (prefixes, suffixes and infixes)
j. Eponyms
…Word Formation Processes
a. Coinage
• This refers to the creation of totally new terms
into a language. Most of them come from the
name of the inventors, the products’ names or
the company’s name.
– Kleenex
– Nylon
– Zipper
– Aspirin
– Rotoplas
…Word Formation Processes
b. Borrowing
• This process refers, as the name claims,
when a language ‘borrows’ terms from
other languages.

– Alcohol (Arabic)
– Boss (Dutch)
– Piano (Italian)
– Yoghurt (Turkish)
– Robot (Czech)
…Word Formation Processes
c. Compounding
• It refers to the joining of two separate words
to produce a single word. The two words don’t
lose their individual sounds.
– Bookcase
– Fingerprint
– Sunburn
– Doorknob
– Basketball
…Word Formation Processes
d. Blending
• Similar to compounding, blending refers to the
joining of two terms; however, in this case one
(or both) word(s) lose a sound.
– Motel (motor-hotel)
– Telecast (television-broadcast)
– Spanglish (Spanish-English)
– Modem (Modulator-demodulator)
…Word Formation Processes
e. Clipping
• Clipping a synonym of reduction. In this
process a word that has more than one
syllable is reduced to a shorter form

– Cellular (cell)
– Brassiere (bra)
– Fanatic (fan)
…Word Formation Processes
f. Backformation
• This occurs when a word of one type (usually a noun)
is changed to another different type of word (usually
a verb)

– Donation(n) -donate (v)

– Option(n) -Opt (v)
– Babysitter(n) -Babysit (v)

Hypocorisms: the reduction of a long word to a single syllable

and the –y and –ie are added to the end.
Television-telly Barbecue-barbie Breakfast -breakie
…Word Formation Processes
g. Conversion
• This is the change of the function of the word.
For example when a noun comes to be used
as a verb.

– Butter
– Bottle
– Water
– Print out (a printout)
– Want to be (wannabe)
…Word Formation Processes
h.Affixation
• Affixation is the process where we take a base form
word and we add a prefix, infix or suffix.

• A prefix is an affixation process that includes adding

a morpheme at the beginning of the word

• A suffix is a segment that we add at the end of the

words.

• An infix is what goes between the prefix and the root

Prefixes

http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/prefixtext.htm
 Suffixes
• These are the responsible for making words change their
function.
• There are:
– Noun suffixes
– Adjective Suffixes
– Verb Suffixes
– Adverb Suffixes
• As a reading, writing or listening recognition strategy,
despite of not having the exact meaning of a word, just
by looking at the suffix we now the function of the word.
 Suffixes

• http://www.scribd.com/doc/441225/English-
suffixes
Infixes
They are not very common in English.
When they appear is because they are usually in
an exclamation word.

Unfuckingbelievable!

Absogoddamlutely!
…Word Formation Processes
i. Acronyms
• Sometimes words are created because of acronyms.
Acronyms are abbreviations pronounced as if they were
words. They have proloferated.
• Spanish
– SIDA (Sindrome de Inmuno-Deficiencia Adquirida)
– OVNI (Objeto Volador No Identificado)
• English
– Radar (Radio Detecting and ranging)
– UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization)
j. Eponyms
• A new word is formed from a proper name. in
other words, an eponym denotes the name of an
object or activity which is also the name of the
person who first created the object or activity
• Sandwich from 18th century fourth Earl of
Sandwich
• Caesarian
• Xerox
• Phonetics
• Phonology
 Phonology
• Focus on mental representations of sounds
• Has rules mapping mental representations to
pronunciations
• Phonology is the starting point while
phonetics is the ‘output’ of phonology
• Phonemic representation – physical
representation
call: /kh/, /a/, /l/ -> phonemic representation
[kh al] -> phonetic representation
Common Types of Phonological Rules

• Assimilation
- a sound becomes more like a nearby sound
- place assimilation: comfort [mf], input [mp]
• Insertion
-Hamster /hæmstr/ : [p] is sometimes inserted
• Deletion
okay [okey]  [key] (optional)easier and
faster to say
 Phonetics
• The scientific study of speech sounds and how
they are produced in the vocal tract
• Concerned with actual pronunciation
• Concerned with articulation
 The Phonetic Alphabet
• In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) was invented in order to have a system
in which there was a one-to-one
correspondence between each sound in
language and each phonetic symbol
• Someone who knows the IPA knows how to
pronounce any word in any language
 Identity of Speech Sounds
– Acoustic phonetics: focuses on the physical
properties of the sounds of language
– Auditory phonetics: focuses on how listeners
perceive the sounds of language
– Articulatory phonetics: focuses on how the
vocal tract produces the sounds of language
Most speech sounds are produced by pushing air
through the vocal cords
– Glottis = the opening between the vocal cords
– Larynx = ‘voice box’
– Pharynx = tubular part of the throat above the
larynx
– Oral cavity = mouth
– Nasal cavity = nose and the passages connecting
it to the throat and sinuses
Consonants: Place of Articulation

• Consonants are sounds produced with some

restriction or closure in the vocal tract
• Consonants are classified based in part on
where in the vocal tract the airflow is being
restricted (the place of articulation)
• The major places of articulation are: bilabial,
labiodental, interdental, alveolar, palatal,
velar, uvular, and glottal
Consonants: Place of Articulation

• Bilabials: [p] [b] [m]

– Produced by bringing both lips together
• Labiodentals: [f] [v]
– Produced by touching the bottom lip to the
upper teeth
• Interdentals [θ] [d]
– Produced by putting the top of the tongue
between the teeth
 Consonants: Place of Articulation
• Alveolars: [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
– All of these are produced by raising the tongue to the alveolar ridge
in some way
• [t, d, n]: produced by the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar
ridge (or just in front of it)
• [s, z]: produced with the sides of the front of the tongue raised but
the tip lowered to allow air to escape
• [l]: the tongue tip is raised while the rest of the tongue remains
down so air can escape over the sides of the tongue (thus [l] is a
lateral sound)
• [r]: air escapes through the central part of the mouth; either the tip
of the tongue is curled back behind the alveolar ridge or the top of
the tongue is bunched up behind the alveolar ridge
Consonants: Place of Articulation
Palatals: [ʃ] [ʒ] [ʧ] [ʤ][ʝ]
– Produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the
palate
• Velars: [k] [g] [ŋ]
– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate
or velum
• Uvulars: [ʀ] [q] [ɢ]
– Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the uvula
• Glottals: [h] [Ɂ]
– Produced by restricting the airflow through the open glottis
([h]) or by stopping the air completely at the glottis (a
glottal stop[Ɂ])
 Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• The manner of articulation is the way the

airstream is affected as it flows from the lungs
and out of the mouth and nose
• Voiceless sounds are those produced with the
vocal cords apart so the air flows freely
through the glottis
• Voiced sounds are those produced when the
vocal cords are together and vibrate as air
passes through
Consonants: Manner of Articulation
• The voiced/ voiceless distinction is important in English
because it helps us distinguish words like:

rope/robe fine/vine seal/zeal

[rop]/[rob] [faɪn]/[vaɪn] [sil]/[zil]

• But some voiceless sounds can be further distinguished as

aspirated or unaspirated
aspirated unaspirated

Pool [phul] Spool [spul]

Tale [thel] Stale [stel]
Kale [khel] Scale [skel]
Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Oral sounds are those produced with the velum

raised to prevent air from escaping out the nose
• Nasal sounds are those produced with the velum
lowered to allow air to escape out the nose
• So far we have three ways of classifying sounds
based on phonetic features: by voicing, by place
of articulation, and by nasalization
– [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral sound
– [n] is a voiced, alveolar, nasal sound
…Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Stops: [p] [b] [m] [t] [d] [n] [k] [g] [ŋ] [ʧ][ʤ] [Ɂ]
Produced by completely stopping the air flow in
the oral cavity for a fraction of a second
All other sounds are continuants, meaning
that the airflow is continuous through the oral
cavity
• Fricatives: [f] [v] [θ] [d] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [x] [ɣ] [h]
Produced by severely obstructing the airflow so
as to cause friction
…Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Affricates: [ʧ] [ʤ]

– Produced by a stop closure that is released with
a lot of friction
• Liquids: [l] [r]
– Produced by causing some obstruction of the
airstream in the mouth, but not enough to cause
any real friction
• Glides: [j] [w]
– Produced with very little obstruction of the
airstream and are always followed by a vowel
…Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Approximants: [w] [j] [r] [l]

– Sometimes liquids and glides are put together
into one category because the articulators
approximate a frictional closeness but do not
actually cause friction
• Trills and flaps: [r]* [ɾ]
– Trills are produced by rapidly vibrating an
articulator
– Flaps are produced by a flick of the tongue
against the alveolar ridge
…Consonants: Manner of Articulation

• Clicks:
– Produced by moving air in the mouth between
various articulators
– The disapproving sound tsk in English is a
consonant in Zulu and some other southern
African languages
– The lateral click used to encourage a horse inn
English is a consonant in Xhosa
vowels
vowels
 Prosodic Features
• Prosodic, or suprasegmental
• Features of sounds, such as length, stress and
pitch, are features above the segmental values
such as place and manner of articulation
…Prosodic Features

Length:
• In some languages, such as Japanese, the
length of a consonant or a vowel can change
the meaning of a word:
– biru [biru] “building” -biiru [biːru] “beer”
– saki [saki] “ahead” -sakki [sakːi] “before”
…Prosodic Features

• Stress: a stressed syllable, which can be

marked by an acute accent (‘) is perceived as
more prominent than an unstressed syllable
Pérvert (noun) My neighbor is a
pervert.
Pervért (verb) Don’t pervert the idea
Súbject (noun) Let’s change the
subject
Subjéct (verb) He’ll subject us to
criticism.
…Prosodic Features

• Tone languages are languages that use pitch to

contrast the meaning of words
• Intonation languages (like English) have varied
pitch contour across an utterance, but pitch is not
used to distinguish words
– However, intonation may affect the meaning of a
whole sentence:
John is here said with falling intonation is a
statement
John is here said with rising intonation is a
question
 SYNTAX
• A set of rules that govern how words are
combined to form phrases and sentences
SUBJECT
AND VERB
AGREEMENT
1. Subjects and verbs must agree in
number. This is the cornerstone rule that
forms the background of the concept.
• The dog growls when he is angry.
The dogs growl when they are angry.
2. Don’t get confused by the words that
come between the subject and verb;
they do not affect agreement.
• The dog, who is chewing on my
jeans, is usually very good.
3. Prepositional phrases between
the subject and verb usually do not
affect agreement.
• The colors of the
rainbow are beautiful.
4. When sentences start with “there” or
“here,” the subject will always be placed
after the verb, so care needs to be taken to
identify it correctly.
• There is a problem with the balance sheet.
Here are the papers you requested.
• 5. Subjects don't always come before
verbs in questions. Make sure you
accurately identify the subject before
deciding on the proper verb form to use.
• Does Lefty usually eat grass?
• Where are the pieces of this puzzle.
6. If two subjects are joined by and,
they typically require a plural verb form.
• The cow and the pig are jumping over
the moon.
7. The verb is singular if the two
subjects separated by and refer to the
same person or thing.
• Red beans and rice is my mom's
favorite dish.
8. If one of the words each, every, or
no comes before the subject, the verb
is singular.
• No smoking or drinking is allowed.
• Every man and woman is required to
check in
9. If the subjects are both singular and are
connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor,
either/or, and not only/but also the verb is
singular.
• Jessica or Christian is to blame for the
accident.
10. The only time when the object of the
preposition factors into the decision of plural
or singular verb forms is when noun and
pronoun subjects like some, half, none, more,
all, etc. are followed by a prepositional
phrase. In these sentences, the object of the
preposition determines the form of the verb.
All of the chicken is gone.
All of the chickens are gone.
11. The singular verb form is usually used
for units of measurement or time.
• Four quarts of oil was required to get the
car running.
12. If the subjects are both plural and
are connected by the words or, nor,
neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but
also, the verb is plural.
• Dogs and cats are both available at
the pound.
13. If one subject is singular and one
plural and the words are connected by the
words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or,
andnot only/but also, you use the verb
form of the subject that is nearest the
verb.
• Either the bears or the lion has escaped
from the zoo. Neither the lion nor
the bears have escaped from the zoo.
14. Indefinite pronouns typically take
singular verbs.
• Everybody wants to be loved.
15. * Except for the pronouns (few, many,
several, both, all, some) that always take the
plural form.
• Few were left alive after the flood.
16. If two infinitives are separated
by and they take the plural form of the verb.
• To walk and to chew gum require great
skill.
• 17. When gerunds are used as the subject
of a sentence, they take the singular verb
form of the verb; but, when they are linked
by and, they take the plural form.
• Standing in the water was a bad idea.
• Swimming in the ocean and playing drums
are my hobbies.
18. Collective nouns like herd, senate, class,
crowd, etc. usually take a singular verb form.
• The herd is stampeding.
19. Titles of books, movies, novels, etc. are
treated as singular and take a singular verb.
• The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.
20. Final Rule – Remember, only
the subject affects the verb!
Exercise : Subject and Verb Agreement Exercise
Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.
2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two
hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.
11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.
12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.
13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.
14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics
(is, are) Andrea's favorite subject.
16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.
17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.
19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there
(is, are) only one left!
20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions
carefully.
21. The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private.
22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, (greets, greet)
the press cordially.
23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this
case.
Sentences and
Fragments
 Parallelism

By balancing the items in a sentence,

you will make the sentence clearer and
easier to read.
Ex.: My job includes checking inventory,
initialing orders, and to call the
suppliers.
Items in a series must have
parallel structure.
Parallelism looks like this:
,
Shane , and .

,
Shane , and .
The problem looks like this:

Shane ate the pizza,

wiped her lips, and
burping with
contentment.
 Here is an example:

Shane ate the pizza, wiped her

lips, and burped with contentment.

Ate = past
tense verb;
wiped = past
tense verb; and
burped = past
tense verb.
 Uses of
Parallelism
• To coordinate elements
in a series
• To pair ideas
• To enhance coherence
• To organize lists
 Using Parallelism
All items listing two or more words, phrases, or
clauses, need to be written in the same
grammatical structure. For example, balance a
noun with a noun, a phrase with a phrase, a
clause with a clause.
Example
• Many people are interested in combat when
they read about it at home, study about it in
school, or watching it on television.
• Revision: Many people are interested in
combat when they read about it at home,
study about it in school, or watch it on
television.
Using Parallelism with Pairs
• When two ideas are included, they
must be parallel.
– Tourists enjoy viewing air shows on
military bases and to examine displays
of armor in museums.
• Revision:
– Tourists enjoy viewing air shows on
military bases and examining armor
displays in museums.
 Using Parallelism

• Put words linked by coordinating

conjunctions in parallel form.
– The martial arts stress the study of
hand technique and how you kick.
• Revision:
– The martial arts stress strengthening
the hands and the feet.
Checking for Parallelism
• Check items listed in a
series.
– Use a parallel grammatical
structure for all items.
• Check places where
coordinating conjunctions
are used.
Parallelism Review Exercises

Judge whether the following

sentence is correct:

• In the 18th century,

Franz Mesmer treated
patients by using iron
magnets and hypnosis.
 Parallelism Review Exercises

Judge whether the following

sentence is correct

• People accused him of

being a magician and that
he was a fraud.
Parallelism Review Exercises

Judge whether the following

sentence is correct:

• People accused him of

being a magician and a
fraud.
Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Today hypnosis is used in

dentistry, in obstetrics,
and when having minor
surgery.
Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Today hypnosis is used

in dentistry, in
obstetrics, and in minor
surgery.
Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Fear, stress, and

feeling anxious seem to
be factors in increasing
physiological pain.
Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Fear, stress, and anxiety

seem to be factors in
increasing physiological
pain.
 Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Hypnosis can quiet the

mind by slowing heart
rates, lowering respiration
rates, and it reduces blood
pressure.
 Parallelism Review Exercises
Judge whether the following
sentence is correct:

• Hypnosis can quiet the

mind by slowing heart
rates, lowering
respiration, and reducing
blood pressure.