Synchronous

machines
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a

field circuit supplied by an external DC source.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor
winding producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then turned by
external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces
a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding.
In a synchronous motor, a 3-phase set of stator currents produces a
rotating magnetic field causing the rotor magnetic field to align with
it. The rotor magnetic field is produced by a DC current applied to
the rotor winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field
(rotor windings for synchronous machines); armature windings are
the windings where the main voltage is induced (stator windings for
synchronous machines).
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
The rotor of a synchronous machine is a large electromagnet. The magnetic
poles can be either salient (sticking out of rotor surface) or non-salient
construction.

Non-salient-pole rotor: usually two- and four-pole Salient-pole rotor: four

rotors. and more poles.

Rotors are made laminated to reduce eddy current losses.

CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
A synchronous rotor with 8 salient
poles

Salient pole
Salient pole with
without field
field windings
windings – observe
laminations
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field
circuits on the rotating rotor:

1. Supply the DC power from an

external DC source to the rotor by
means of slip rings and brushes;

2. Supply the DC power from a

special DC power source mounted
directly on the shaft of the
machine.

Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a machine but
insulated from it. One end of a DC rotor winding is connected to each of the
two slip rings on the machine’s shaft. Graphite-like carbon brushes
connected to DC terminals ride on each slip ring supplying DC voltage to
field windings regardless the position or speed of the rotor.
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Slip rings

Brush
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Slip rings and brushes have certain disadvantages: increased friction and
wear (therefore, needed maintenance), brush voltage drop can introduce
significant power losses. Still this approach is used in most small synchronous
machines.
On large generators and motors, brushless exciters are used.
A brushless exciter is a small AC generator whose field circuits are
mounted on the stator and armature circuits are mounted on the
rotor shaft. The exciter generator’s 3-phase output is rectified to DC
by a 3-phase rectifier (mounted on the shaft) and fed into the main
DC field circuit. It is possible to adjust the field current on the main
machine by controlling the small DC field current of the exciter
generator (located on the stator).
Since no mechanical contact occurs between the rotor and the stator,
exciters of this type require much less maintenance.
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A brushless exciter: a
low 3-phase current
is rectified and used
to supply the field
circuit of the exciter
(located on the
stator). The output of
the exciter’s
armature circuit (on
the rotor) is rectified
and used as the field
current of the main
machine.
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
To make the
excitation of a
generator
completely
independent of any
external power
source, a small pilot
exciter is often
added to the
circuit. The pilot
exciter is an AC
generator with a
permanent magnet
mounted on the
rotor shaft and a 3-
phase winding on
the stator
producing the
power for the field
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A rotor of large
synchronous
machine with a
brushless exciter
mounted on the
same shaft.

Many synchronous
generators having
brushless exciters also
include slip rings and
brushes to provide
emergency source of
the field DC current.
 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A large
synchronous
machine with
the exciter
and salient
poles.
The elementary 3-phase 2-pole synchronous generator has a stator
equipped with 3 coils displaced 120o from each other; although shown as
concentrated, they actually are distributed.
When the rotor is excited with dc and rotated, the resultant field will also
rotate so that sinusoidal voltages are generated in the 3 stator phases,
displaced 120o in time and having a frequency directly related to rotor
speed.
 ROTATION SPEED OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
By the definition, synchronous generators produce electricity whose
frequency is synchronized with the mechanical rotational speed.

nm P
fe 
120
Where fe is the electrical frequency, Hz;
nm is mechanical speed of magnetic field (rotor speed for
synchronous machine), rpm;
P is the number of poles.
Steam turbines are most efficient when rotating at high speed;
therefore, to generate 60 Hz, they are usually rotating at 3600 rpm
and turn 2-pole generators.
Water turbines are most efficient when rotating at low speeds (200-
300 rpm); therefore, they usually turn generators with many poles.
INTERNAL GENERATED VOLTAGE OF A
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

The magnitude of internal generated voltage induced in a given stator is

EA  2 NC f  K
where K is a constant representing the construction of the machine,  is
flux in it and  is its rotation speed.

Since flux in the

machine
depends on the
field current
through it, the
internal
generated
voltage is a
function of the
rotor field Magnetization curve (open-circuit characteristic)
current. of a synchronous machine
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

The internally generated voltage in a single phase of a

synchronous machine EA is not usually the voltage
appearing at its terminals. It equals to the output
voltage V only when there is no armature current in the
machine. The reasons that the armature voltage EA is
not equal to the output voltage V are:
1. Distortion of the air-gap magnetic field caused by
the current flowing in the stator (armature reaction);
2. Self-inductance of the armature coils;
3. Resistance of the armature coils;
4. Effect of salient-pole rotor shapes.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Armature reaction (the

largest effect):

When the rotor of a

synchronous generator is
spinning, a voltage EA is
induced in its stator. When a
load is connected, a current Laggin
g load
starts flowing creating a
magnetic field in machine’s
stator. This stator magnetic
field BS adds to the rotor
(main) magnetic field BR
affecting the total magnetic
field and, therefore, the
phase voltage.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Assuming that the generator is connected to a lagging load, the load

current IA will create a stator magnetic field BS, which will produce the
armature reaction voltage Estat. Therefore, the phase voltage will be

V  E A  Estat
The net magnetic flux will be

Bnet  BR  BS
Rotor field Stator
field

Note that the directions of the net magnetic flux and the phase voltage are
the same.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Assuming that the load reactance is X, the armature reaction voltage is

Estat   jXI A
The phase voltage is then V  E A  jXI A
Armature reactance can be modeled by the
following circuit…
However, in addition to armature reactance
effect, the stator coil has a self-inductance LA
(XA is the corresponding reactance) and the
stator has resistance RA. The phase voltage is
thus
V  E A  jXI A  jX A I A  RI A
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Often, armature reactance and self-inductance are combined into the

synchronous reactance of the machine:

XS  X  X A
Therefore, the phase voltage is

V  E A  jX S I A  RI A

The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase

synchronous generator is shown.

The adjustable resistor Radj controls the

field current and, therefore, the rotor
magnetic field.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

A synchronous generator can be Y- or -connected:

The terminal voltage will be

VT  3V  forY VT  V  for

 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Note: the discussion above assumed a balanced load on the

generator!
Since – for balanced loads – the three phases of a synchronous generator
are identical except for phase angles, per-phase equivalent circuits are
often used.
 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are

usually expressed as phasors. A vector plot of voltages and currents within
one phase is called a phasor diagram.
A phasor diagram of a synchronous
generator with a unity power factor
(resistive load)

Lagging power factor (inductive load): a

larger than for leading PF internal
generated voltage EA is needed to form
the same phase voltage.

Leading power factor (capacitive load).

For a given field current and magnitude

of load current, the terminal voltage is
lower for lagging loads and higher for
leading loads.
The operation of a synchronous generator delivering power to a
constant power-factor load is demonstrated by means of animated
phasor diagrams and compounding curves. A compounding curve
shows the field excitation needed to maintain rated terminal voltage
as the load is varied. The basic phasor equation is
E = V + jX I.
 POWER AND TORQUE IN SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

A synchronous generator needs to be connected to a prime mover whose

speed is reasonably constant (to ensure constant frequency of the
generated voltage) for various loads.
The applied mechanical power
Pin   appm
is partially converted to electricity
Pconv   ind m  3EA I A cos 
Where  is the angle
between EA and IA.

The power-flow diagram of

a synchronous generator.
 POWER AND TORQUE IN SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

The real output power of the synchronous generator is

Pout  3VT I L cos   3V I A cos 

The reactive output power of the synchronous generator is

Qout  3VT I L sin   3V I A sin 

Recall that the power factor angle  is the angle between V and IA and not
the angle between VT and IL.
In real synchronous machines of any size,
the armature resistance RA << XS and,
therefore, the armature resistance can be
ignored. Thus, a simplified phasor diagram
indicates that
E A sin 
I A cos  
XS
 POWER AND TORQUE IN SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

Then the real output power of the synchronous generator can be

approximated as
3V EA sin 
Pout 
XS
We observe that electrical losses are assumed to be zero since the
resistance is neglected. Therefore:
Pconv  Pout
Here  is the torque angle of the machine – the angle between V and EA.

The maximum power can be supplied by the generator when  = 900:

3V E A
Pmax 
XS
 POWER AND TORQUE IN SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

Normally, real generators do not approach this limit: full-load torque

angles are usually between 150 and 200.

The induced torque is

 ind  kBR  BS  kBR  Bnet  kBR Bnet sin 

Notice that the torque angle  is also the angle between the rotor
magnetic field BR and the net magnetic field Bnet.

Alternatively, the induced torque is

3V E A sin 
 ind 
m X S
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL

The three quantities must be determined in order to describe the generator

model:
1. The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between
the field current IF and the internal generated voltage EA);
2. The synchronous reactance;
3. The armature resistance.
We conduct first the open-circuit test on the synchronous generator: the
generator is rotated at the rated speed, all the terminals are disconnected
from loads, the field current is set to zero first. Next, the field current is
increased in steps and the phase voltage (whish is equal to the internal
generated voltage EA since the armature current is zero) is measured.

Therefore, it is possible to plot the dependence of the internal generated

voltage on the field current – the open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of the
generator.
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL

Since the unsaturated core of the machine

has a reluctance thousands times lower
than the reluctance of the air-gap, the
resulting flux increases linearly first. When the
saturation is reached, the core reluctance
greatly increases causing the flux to
increase much slower with the increase of
the mmf.

We conduct next the short-circuit test on the synchronous generator: the

generator is rotated at the rated speed, all the terminals are short-circuited
through ammeters, the field current is set to zero first. Next, the field current
is increased in steps and the armature current IA is measured as the field
current is increased.

The plot of armature current (or line current) vs. the field current is the short-
circuit characteristic (SCC) of the generator.
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL

The SCC is a straight line since, for the

short-circuited terminals, the magnitude
of the armature current is
EA
IA 
RA2  X S2
The equivalent generator’s circuit
during SC
The resulting
phasor diagram

The magnetic
fields during
Since BS almost cancels BR, the short-circuit test
net field Bnet is very small.
MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL

An approximate method to determine the synchronous reactance XS at a

given field current:
1. Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at that field
current.
2. Get the short-circuit current IA,SC at that field current from the SCC.
3. Find XS from
EA
XS 
I A, SC

Since the internal machine impedance is

EA
ZS  R  X 
2
A
2
S  X S since X S RA 
I A, SC
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL

A drawback of this method is that the internal generated voltage EA is

measured during the OCC, where the machine can be saturated for large
field currents, while the armature current is measured in SCC, where the
core is unsaturated. Therefore, this approach is accurate for unsaturated
cores only.
The approximate value of
synchronous reactance varies with
the degree of saturation of the
OCC.
Therefore, the value of the
synchronous reactance for a given
problem should be estimated at the
approximate
The winding’s load of the can
resistance machine.
be
approximated by applying a DC
voltage to a stationary machine’s
winding and measuring the current.
However, AC resistance is slightly
larger than DC resistance (skin
effect).
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL: EX

Example 7.1: A 200 kVA, 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator

with a rated field current of 5 A was tested and the following data were
obtained:
1. VT,OC = 540 V at the rated IF.
2. IL,SC = 300 A at the rated IF.
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to two of the terminals, a current
of 25 A was measured.
Find the generator’s model at the rated conditions (i.e., the armature
resistance and the approximate synchronous reactance).
Since the generator is Y-connected, a
DC voltage was applied between its two
phases. Therefore:

VDC
2 RA 
I DC
VDC 10
RA    0.2
2 I DC 2  25
 MEASURING PARAMETERS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL: EX

The internal generated voltage at the rated field current is

VT 540
EA  V ,OC    311.8V
3 3
The synchronous reactance at the rated field current is precisely
E A2 311.8 2
X S  Z S2  RA2   RA2   0.2 2
 1.02
I A2 , SC 300 2

We observe that if XS was estimated via the approximate formula, the result
would be:
EA 311.8
XS    1.04
I A, SC 300
Which is close to the previous result.
The error ignoring RA is much smaller
than the error due to core
saturation. The equivalent circuit
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE

The behavior of a synchronous generator varies greatly

under load depending on the power factor of the load
and on whether the generator is working alone or in
parallel with other synchronous generators.

Although most of the synchronous generators in the

world operate as parts of large power systems, we start
our discussion assuming that the synchronous generator
works alone.

Unless otherwise stated, the speed of the generator is

assumed constant.
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE

Effects of load changes

A increase in the load is an
increase in the real and/or
reactive power drawn from the
generator.
Since the field resistor is unaffected, the field current is constant and,
therefore, the flux  is constant too. Since the speed is assumed as constant,
the magnitude of the internal generated voltage is constant also.
Assuming the same power factor of the load, change in load will change
the magnitude of the armature current IA. However, the angle will be the
same (for a constant PF). Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be
larger for the increased load. Since the magnitude of the internal
generated voltage is constant
E A  V  jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE

Increase load effect on generators with

Leading PF

Lagging PF

Unity PF
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE

Generally, when a load on a synchronous generator is added, the

following changes can be observed:

1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage

decreases significantly.
2. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase (and
terminal) voltage decreases slightly.
3. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal)
voltage rises.
Effects of adding loads can be described by the voltage regulation:

Vnl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl
Where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is its full-load
voltage.
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE

A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly

large positive voltage regulation. A synchronous generator operating at a
unity power factor has a small positive voltage regulation. A synchronous
generator operating at a leading power factor often has a negative
voltage regulation.
Normally, a constant terminal voltage supplied by a generator is desired.
Since the armature reactance cannot be controlled, an obvious approach
to adjust the terminal voltage is by controlling the internal generated
voltage EA = K. This may be done by changing flux in the machine while
varying the value of the field resistance RF, which is summarized:
1. Decreasing the field resistance increases the field current in the
generator.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increased flux leads to the increase in the internal generated
voltage.
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage increases the terminal
Therefore,
voltagethe terminal
of the voltage of the generator can be changed by
generator.
adjusting the field resistance.
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE

Example 7.2: A 480 V, 60 Hz, Y-connected six-pole synchronous generator has

a per-phase synchronous reactance of 1.0 . Its full-load armature current is
60 A at 0.8 PF lagging. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW and core
losses are 1.0 kW at 60 Hz at full load. Assume that the armature resistance
(and, therefore, the I2R losses) can be ignored. The field current has been
adjusted such that the no-load terminal voltage is 480 V.

a. What is the speed of rotation of this generator?

b. What is the terminal voltage of the generator if
1. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF lagging;
2. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PF;
3. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF leading.
c. What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical
losses) when it is operating at the rated current and 0.8 PF lagging?
d. How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at the full
load?
how large is the induced countertorque?
e. What is the voltage regulation of this generator at 0.8 PF lagging? at 1.0
PF? at 0.8 PF leading?
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE
Since the generator is Y-connected, its phase voltage is

V  VT 3  277V
At no load, the armature current IA = 0 and the internal generated voltage
is EA = 277 V and it is constant since the field current was initially adjusted
that way.
a. The speed of rotation of a synchronous generator is
120 120
nm  fe  60  1200rpm
P 6
which is 1200
m  2  125.7rad s
60
b.1. For the generator at the rated current and
the 0.8 PF lagging, the phasor diagram is shown.
The phase voltage is at 00, the magnitude of EA is
277 V,
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE

and that jX S I A  j 1 60  36.87  6053.13

Two unknown quantities are the magnitude of V and the angle  of EA.
From the phasor diagram:

E  V  X S I A sin     X S I A cos  

2 2 2
A

Then:
V  E   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   236.8V
2 2
A

Since the generator is Y-connected,

VT  3V  410V
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE

b.2. For the generator at the rated current

and the 1.0 PF, the phasor diagram is
shown.
Then: 2
V  EA   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   270.4V
2

and VT  3V  468.4V

b.3. For the generator at the rated current

and the 0.8 PF leading, the phasor diagram is
shown.
Then:

V  EA2   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   308.8V

2

and

VT  3V  535V
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE

c. The output power of the generator at 60 A and 0.8 PF lagging is

Pout  3V I A cos   3  236.8  60  0.8  34.1kW

The mechanical input power is given by

Pin  Pout  Pelecloss  Pcoreloss  Pmechloss  34.1  0  1.0  1.5  36.6kW

The efficiency is
Pout 34.1
 100%  100%  93.2%
Pin 36.6
d. The input torque of the generator is
Pin 36.6
 app    291.2 N - m
m 125.7
 THE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING
ALONE: EXAMPLE

The induced countertorque of the generator is

Pconv 34.1
 app    271.3N - m
m 125.7
e. The voltage regulation of the generator is

480  410
Lagging PF: VR  100%  17.1%
410
480  468
Unity PF: VR  100%  2.6%
468
480  535
Lagging PF: VR  100%  10.3%
535
 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

All generators are driven by a prime mover, such as a steam, gas, water,
wind turbines, diesel engines, etc. Regardless the power source, most of
prime movers tend to slow down with increasing the load. This decrease in
speed is usually nonlinear but governor mechanisms of some type may be
included to linearize this dependence.

The speed drop (SD) of a prime mover is defined as:

nnl  n fl
SD  100%
n fl

Most prime movers have a speed drop from 2% to 4%. Most governors have
a mechanism to adjust the turbine’s no-load speed (set-point adjustment).
 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

A typical
speed vs.
power plot
A typical
frequency vs.
power plot

Since the shaft speed is linked to the electrical frequency as

nm P
fe 
120
the power output from the generator is related to its frequency:

P  s p  f nl  f sys 
Slope of curve, W/Hz Operating frequency of the
system
 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

A similar relationship can be derived for the reactive power Q and terminal
voltage VT. When adding a lagging load to a synchronous generator, its
terminal voltage decreases. When adding a leading load to a synchronous
generator, its terminal voltage increases.
The plot of terminal voltage vs.
reactive power is not necessarily
linear.
Both the frequency-power and
terminal voltage vs. reactive
power characteristics are
important for parallel operations
of generators.
When a generator is operating alone supplying the load:
1. The real and reactive powers are the amounts demanded by the load.
2. The governor of the prime mover controls the operating frequency of the
system.
3. The field current controls the terminal voltage of the power system.
 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS: EXAMPLE

Example 7.3: A generator with no-load

frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope sp of 1
MW/Hz is connected to Load 1 consuming 1
MW of real power at 0.8 PF lagging. Load 2
(that is to be connected to the generator)
consumes a real power of 0.8 MW at 0.707 PF
lagging.
a. Find the operating frequency of the system before the switch is closed.
b. Find the operating frequency of the system after the switch is closed.
c. What action could an operator take to restore the system frequency to
60 Hz after both loads are connected to the generator?
The power produced by the generator is

P  s p  f nl  f sys 
P
Therefore: f sys  f nl 
sp
 TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS: EXAMPLE

a. The frequency of the system with one load is

P 1
f sys  f nl   61   60Hz
sp 1
b. The frequency of the system with two loads is
P 1.8
f sys  f nl   61   59.2Hz
sp 1

c. To restore the system to the proper operating frequency, the operator

should increase the governor no-load set point by 0.8 Hz, to 61.8 Hz. This
will restore the system frequency of 60 Hz.
 PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

Most of synchronous generators are operating in parallel with other

synchronous generators to supply power to the same power system.
Obvious advantages of this arrangement are:
1. Several generators can supply a bigger load;
2. A failure of a single generator does not result in a total power loss to the
load increasing reliability of the power system;
3. Individual generators may be removed from the power system for
maintenance without shutting down the load;
4. A single generator not operating at near full load might be quite
inefficient. While having several generators in parallel, it is possible to turn
off some of them when operating the rest at near full-load condition.
 CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR PARALLELING

A diagram shows that Generator 2

(oncoming generator) will be
connected in parallel when the
switch S1 is closed.
However, closing the switch at an
arbitrary moment can severely
damage both generators!
If voltages are not exactly the same in both lines (i.e. in a and a’, b and b’
etc.), a very large current will flow when the switch is closed. Therefore, to
avoid this, voltages coming from both generators must be exactly the
same. Therefore, the following conditions must be met:
1. The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2. The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
3. The phase angles of two a phases must be equal.
4. The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly higher than
the frequency of the running system.
 CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR PARALLELING
If the phase sequences are
different, then even if one pair of
voltages (phases a) are in phase,
the other two pairs will be 1200 out
of phase creating huge currents in
these phases.

If the frequencies of the generators are different, a large power transient

may occur until the generators stabilize at a common frequency. The
frequencies of two machines must be very close to each other but not
exactly equal. If frequencies differ by a small amount, the phase angles of
the oncoming generator will change slowly with respect to the phase
angles of the running system.
If the angles between the voltages can be observed, it is possible to close
the switch S1 when the machines are in phase.
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PARALLELING
GENERATORS

When connecting the generator G2 to the running system, the following

steps should be taken:
1. Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal
voltage equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2. Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the
running system. This can be done by different ways:
1) Connect a small induction motor to the terminals of the oncoming
generator and then to the terminals of the running system. If the
motor rotates in the same direction, the phase sequence is the
2) same;
Connect three light bulbs across the
open terminals of the switch. As the
phase changes between the two
generators, light bulbs get brighter
(large phase difference) or dimmer
(small phase difference). If all three
bulbs get bright and dark together,
both generators have the same phase
sequences.
 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PARALLELING
GENERATORS

If phase sequences are different, two of the conductors on the oncoming

generator must be reversed.
3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly
higher than the system’s frequency.
4. Turn on the switch connecting G2 to the system when phase angles are
equal.
The simplest way to determine the moment when two generators are in
phase is by observing the same three light bulbs. When all three lights go
out, the voltage across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.

A more accurate way is to use a synchroscope – a

meter measuring the difference in phase angles
between two a phases. However, a synchroscope
does not check the phase sequence since it only
measures the phase difference in one phase.

The whole process is usually automated…

 OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH
LARGE POWER SYSTEMS

Often, when a synchronous generator is added to a power system, that

system is so large that one additional generator does not cause observable
changes to the system. A concept of an infinite bus is used to characterize
such power systems.
An infinite bus is a power system that is so large that its voltage and
frequency do not vary regardless of how much real and reactive power is
drawn from or supplied to it. The power-frequency and reactive power-
voltage characteristics are:
 OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH
LARGE POWER SYSTEMS

Consider adding a generator to an

infinite bus supplying a load.
The frequency and terminal voltage
of all machines must be the same.
Therefore, their power-frequency
and reactive power-voltage
characteristics can be plotted with a
common vertical axis.
Such plots are called sometimes as house
diagrams.
 OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH
LARGE POWER SYSTEMS

If the no-load frequency of the

oncoming generator is slightly higher
than the system’s frequency, the
generator will be “floating” on the
line supplying a small amount of real
power and little or no reactive
power.

If the no-load frequency of the

oncoming generator is slightly lower
than the system’s frequency, the
generator will supply a negative
power to the system: the generator
actually consumes energy acting as a
motor!
Many generators have circuitry
automatically disconnecting them
from the line when they start
 OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH
LARGE POWER SYSTEMS

If the frequency of the generator is

increased after it is connected to
the infinite bus, the system
frequency cannot change and the
power supplied by the generator
increases.

Notice that when EA stays constant

(field current and speed are the
same), EAsin (which is proportional to
the output power if VT is constant)
increases.
If the frequency of the generator is further increased, power output from the
generator will be increased and at some point it may exceed the power
consumed by the load. This extra power will be consumed by the load.
 OPERATION OF GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH
LARGE POWER SYSTEMS

After the real power of the generator is adjusted to the desired value, the
generator will be operating at a slightly leading PF acting as a capacitor that
consumes reactive power. Adjusting the field current of the machine, it is
possible to make it to supply reactive power Q to the system.

Summarizing, when the generator is operating in parallel to an infinite

bus:
1. The frequency and terminal voltage of the generator are
controlled by the system to which it is connected.
2. The governor set points of the generator control the real power
supplied by the generator to the system.
3. The generator’s field current controls the reactive power supplied
by the generator to the system.
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

When a generator is working alone, its real and reactive power are fixed
and determined by the load.
When a generator is connected to an infinite bus, its frequency and the
terminal voltage are constant and determined by a bus.

When two generators of the same

size are connected to the same
load, the sum of the real and
reactive powers supplied by the two
generators must equal the real and
reactive powers demanded by the
load:
Ptot  Pload  PG1  PG 2
Qtot  Qload  QG1  QG 2
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

Since the frequency of G2 must be

slightly higher than the system’s
frequency, the power-frequency
diagram right after G2 is connected to
the system is shown.

If the frequency of G2 is next

increased, its power-frequency
diagram shifts upwards. Since the
total power supplied to the load is
constant, G2 starts supplying more
power and G1 starts supplying less
power and the system’s frequency
increases.
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

Therefore, when two generators are operating together, an increase

in frequency (governor set point) on one of them:
1. Increases the system frequency.
2. Increases the real power supplied by that generator, while
reducing the real power supplied by the other one.
When two generators are operating
together, an increase in the field
current on one of them:
1. Increases the system terminal
voltage.
2. Increases the reactive power
supplied by that generator, while
reducing the reactive power
supplied by the other.
If the frequency-power curves of both generators are known, the powers
supplied by each generator and the resulting system frequency can be
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE: EX
Example 7.4: Two generators are set to
supply the same load. Generator 1 has a
no-load frequency of 61.5 Hz and a slope
sp1 of 1 MW/Hz. Generator 2 has a no-load
frequency of 61.0 Hz and a slope sp2 of 1
MW/Hz. The two generators are supplying a
real load of 2.5 MW at 0.8 PF lagging.

a. Find the system frequency and power supplied by each generator.

b. Assuming that an additional 1 MW load is attached to the power system,
find the new system frequency and powers supplied by each generator.
c. With the additional load attached (total load of 3.5 MW), find the system
frequency and the generator powers, if the no-load frequency of G2 is
increased by 0.5 Hz.
The power produced by a synchronous generator with a given slope and a
no-load frequency is
P  s p  f nl  f sys 
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE: EX

The total power supplied by the generators equals to the power

consumed by the load:
Pload  P1  P2
a. The system frequency can be found from:
Pload  P1  P2  s p1  f nl ,1  f sys   s p 2  f nl ,2  f sys 

s p1 f nl ,1  s p 2 f nl ,2  Pload 1 61.5  1 61.0  2.5

as f sys    60.0Hz
s p1  s p 2 11
The powers supplied by each generator are:

P1  s p1  f nl ,1  f sys   1  61.5  60   1.5MW

P2  s p 2  f nl ,2  f sys   1  61.0  60   1MW
GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE: EX
b. For the new load of 3.5 MW, the system frequency is
s p1 f nl ,1  s p 2 f nl ,2  Pload 1 61.5  1 61.0  3.5
f sys    59.5Hz
s p1  s p 2 11

P1  s p1  f nl ,1  f sys   1  61.5  59.5   2.0MW

The powers are:
P2  s p 2  f nl ,2  f sys   1  61.0  59.5   1.5MW
c. If the no-load frequency of G2 increases, the system frequency is

s p1 f nl ,1  s p 2 f nl ,2  Pload 1 61.5  1 61.5  3.5

f sys    59.75Hz
s p1  s p 2 11
The powers are:

P1  P2  s p1  f nl ,1  f sys   1  61.5  59.75   1.75MW

 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

When two generators of the same size are working in parallel, a change in
frequency (governor set points) of one of them changes both the system
frequency and power supplied by each generator.

To adjust power sharing without

changing the system frequency, we
need to increase the frequency
(governor set points) of one generator
and simultaneously decrease the
frequency of the other generator.

To adjust the system frequency without

changing power sharing, we need to
simultaneously increase or decrease
the frequency (governor set points) of
both generators.
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

Similarly, to adjust the reactive power

sharing without changing the terminal
voltage, we need to increase
simultaneously the field current of one
generator and decrease the field
current of the other generator.

To adjust the terminal voltage without

changing the reactive power sharing,
we need to simultaneously increase or
decrease the field currents of both
generators.
 GENERATORS IN PARALLEL WITH OTHER
GENERATORS OF THE SAME SIZE

It is important that both generators being paralleled have dropping

frequency-power characteristics.

If two generators have flat or

almost flat frequency-power
characteristics, the power sharing
between them can vary widely
with only finest changes in no-load
speed. For good of power sharing
between generators, they should
have speed drops of 2% to 5%.
Single-Phase Motor
These are the simplest SR motors with fewest connections between machine
and electronics. The disadvantages lie in very high torque ripple and inability
to start at all angular positions. Maybe attractive for very high speed
applications, but starting problems may preclude their use.
Two-Phase Motor
Problems of starting compared with single phase machines can be
overcome by stepping the air-gap, or providing asymmetry in the rotor poles.
This machine may be of interest where the cost of winding connections is
important, but again high torque ripple may be detrimental.
Three-Phase Motor
Offers simplest solution to starting and torque ripple without resorting to high
numbers of phases. Hence has been the most popular topology in its 6/4
form. Alternative 3-phase machines with doubled-up pole numbers can offer
a better solution for lower speed applications. But again watch-out for torque
ripple especially in the voltage control single-pulse operating mode.
1 Phase

2 Phase

3 Phase
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

The field current IF of the motor

produces a steady-state rotor
magnetic field BR. A 3-phase set of
voltages applied to the stator
produces a 3-phase current flow in
the windings.

A 3-phase set of currents in an

armature winding produces a
uniform rotating magnetic field Bs.

Two magnetic fields are present in the machine, and the rotor field tends to
align with the stator magnetic field. Since the stator magnetic field is
rotating, the rotor magnetic field will try to catch up pulling the rotor.
The larger the angle between two magnetic fields (up to a certain
maximum), the greater the torque on the rotor of the machine.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
A synchronous motor has the same
equivalent circuit as synchronous
generator, except that the
direction of power flow (and the
direction of IA) is reversed. Per-
phase circuit is shown:
A change in direction of IA changes the Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation:

V  E A  jX S I A  RA I A
Therefore, the internal generated voltage is

E A  V  jX S I A  RA I A
We observe that this is exactly the same equation as the equation for the
generator, except that the sign on the current terms is reversed.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR VS. SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

Let us suppose that a phasor

diagram of synchronous
generator is shown. BR
produces EA, Bnet produces V,
and BS produces Estat = -jXSIA.
The rotation on both diagrams
is counterclockwise and the
induced torque is
 ind  kBR  Bnet
clockwise, opposing the direction of rotation. In other words, the induced
torque in generators is a counter-torque that opposes the rotation caused
by external torque.
If the prime mover loses power, the rotor will slow down and the rotor field BR
will fall behind the magnetic field in the machine Bnet. Therefore, the
operation of the machine changes…
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR VS. SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

The induced torque becomes

counter-clockwise, being now in
the direction of rotation. The
machine starts acting as a
motor.
The increasing torque angle 
results in an increasing torque in
the direction of rotation until it
equals to the load torque.
At this point, the machine operates at steady state and synchronous speed
but as a motor.
Notice that, since the direction of IA is changed between the generator and
motor actions, the polarity of stator voltage (-jXSIA) also changes.
In a summary: in a generator, EA lies ahead of V, while in a motor, EA
lies behind V.
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: TORQUE-
SPEED CURVE

Usually, synchronous motors are connected to large power systems

(infinite bus); therefore, their terminal voltage and system frequency are
constant regardless the motor load. Since the motor speed is locked to
the electrical frequency, the speed should be constant regardless the
load.
The steady-state speed of the motor is
constant from no-load to the maximum
torque that motor can supply (pullout
torque). Therefore, the speed regulation
of synchronous motor is 0%.
The induced torque is

 ind  kBR Bnet sin 

or 3V E A
 ind  sin 
m X S
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: TORQUE-
SPEED CURVE

The maximum pullout torque occurs when  = 900:

3V EA
 max  kBR Bnet 
m X S
Normal full-load torques are much less than that (usually, about 3 times
smaller).

When the torque on the shaft of a synchronous motor exceeds the pullout
torque, the rotor can no longer remain locked to the stator and net
magnetic fields. It starts to slip behind them. As the motor slows down, the
stator magnetic field “laps” it repeatedly, and the direction of the induced
torque in the rotor reverses with each pass. As a result, huge torque surges
of alternating direction cause the motor vibrate severely. The loss of
synchronization after the pullout torque is exceeded is known as slipping
poles.
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: EFFECT OF
TORQUE CHANGES

Assuming that a synchronous motor

operates initially with a leading PF.
If the load on the motor increases, the rotor
initially slows down increasing the torque
angle . As a result, the induced torque
increases speeding up the rotor up to the
synchronous speed with a larger torque
angle .
Since the terminal voltage and
frequency supplied to the motor are
constant, the magnitude of internal
generated voltage must be constant
at the load changes (EA = K and
field current is constant).
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: EFFECT OF
TORQUE CHANGES

Assuming that the armature resistance is negligible, the power converted

from electrical to mechanical form in the motor will be the same as its
input power:
3V EA
P  3V I A cos   sin 
XS
Since the phase voltage is constant, the quantities IAcos and EAsin are
directly proportional to the power supplied by (and to) the motor. When
the power supplied by the motor increases, the distance proportional to
power increases.
Since the internal generated voltage
is constant, its phasor “swings down”
as load increases. The quantity jXSIA
has to increase; therefore, the
armature current IA increases too.

Also, the PF angle changes too

moving from leading to lagging.
STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: EFFECT OF
FIELD CURRENT CHANGES
Assuming that a synchronous motor
operates initially with a lagging PF.
If, for the constant load, the field current
on the motor increases, the magnitude of
the internal generated voltage EA
increases.
Since changes in IA do not affect the
shaft speed and the motor load is
constant, the real power supplied by
the motor is unchanged. Therefore, the
distances proportional to power on the
phasor diagram (EAsin and IAcos)
must be constant.
Notice that as EA increases, the magnitude of the armature current IA first
decreases and then increases again. At low EA, the armature current is
lagging and the motor is an inductive load that consumes reactive power
Q. As the field current increases , IA eventually lines up with V, and the
motor is purely resistive. As the field current further increases, IA becomes
leading and the motor is a capacitive load that supplies reactive power Q
to the system (consumes –Q).
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: EFFECT OF
FIELD CURRENT CHANGES
A plot of armature current vs. field
current is called a synchronous motor V
curve. V curves for different levels of
real power have their minimum at unity
PF, when only real power is supplied to
the motor. For field currents less than the
one giving the minimum IA, the
armature current is lagging and the
motor consumes reactive power. For
field currents greater than the one
giving the minimum IA, the armature
current is leading and the motor
supplies reactive power to the system.

Therefore, by controlling the field current of a

synchronous motor, the reactive power consumed or
supplied to the power system can be controlled.
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: EFFECT OF
FIELD CURRENT CHANGES

When the projection of the phasor EA

onto V (EAcos) is shorter than V, a
synchronous motor has a lagging
current and consumes Q. Since the field
current is small in this situation, the
motor is sais to be under-excited.

When the projection of the phasor

EA onto V (EAcos) is longer than
V, a synchronous motor has a
leading current and supplies Q to
the system. Since the field current is
large in this situation, the motor is
sais to be over-excited.
Ex: The 208-V, 45-kVA, O.8-PF-Ieading,∆ connected, 60-Hz synchronous
motor is supplying a 15-hp load with an initial power factor of 0.85 PF
lagging. The field current IF at these conditions is 4.0 A.It has a
synchronous reactance of 2.5Ω and a negligible armature resistance.
Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW, and its core losses are 1.0 kW.
(a) Sketch the initial phasor diagram of this motor, and find the values IA
and EA.
(b) If the motor's flux is increased by 25 percent, sketch the new phasor
diagram of the motor. What are EA, lA, and the power factor of the motor
now?

(a)
The angle θ is cosꜗ 0.85 = 31.8°, so the phasor current IA is equal to

(b) If the flux φ is increased by 25 percent, then EA = K φ w will increase by

25 percent too:
The steady-state characteristics of a synchronous motor represented by phasor diagrams are shown as function of
the excitation voltage E: for low values of E, the motor is said to be under excited and the current I lags the terminal
voltage V where as, for large values of E, the motor becomes over excited with the current now leading the voltage.
Note that the locus of the current phasor is a vertical line meaning that I cos(φ) is constant; similarly the locus of E is a
horizontal line satisfying the condition that E sin(δ) is constant; both constraints are the consequence of maintaining
constant power
P = I V cos(φ) = E V sin(δ) / X. The basic phasor equation is V = E + jX I. The associated V-curve (I versus E) is also
plotted.
The steady-state characteristics of a synchronous motor represented by phasor diagrams
are shown as function of the load P with the excitation voltage E kept constant. The power
expression is P = I V cos(φ) = E V sin(δ) / X. The basic phasor equation is V = E + jX I. The locus
of E is a portion of a circle of radius E centered at the origin of the complex plane.The locus
of I is also a circle of radius E/X centered on the imaginary axis at –V/X. The power P versus
the torque angle δ is also plotted.
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

Assuming that a load

contains a synchronous
motor (whose PF can be
adjusted) in addition to
motors of other types.

Example:
Let us consider a large power system operating at 480 V. Load 1 is an
induction motor consuming 100 kW at 0.78 PF lagging, and load 2 is an
induction motor consuming 200 kW at 0.8 PF lagging. Load 3 is a
synchronous motor whose real power consumption is 150 kW.
a. If the synchronous motor is adjusted to 0.85 PF lagging, what is the line
current?
b. If the synchronous motor is adjusted to 0.85 PF leading, what is the line
current?
c. Assuming that the line losses are PLL = 3IL2RL, how du these losses compare
in the two cases?
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

a. The real power of load 1 is 100 kW, and the reactive power of load 1 is
Q1  P1 tan   100 tan  cos 1 0.78  80.2kVAR
The real power of load 2 is 200 kW, and the reactive power of load 2 is
Q2  P2 tan   200 tan  cos 1 0.8   150kVAR
The real power of load 3 is 150 kW, and the reactive power of load 3 is
Q3  P3 tan   150 tan  cos 1 0.85   93kVAR
The total real load is Ptot  P1  P2  P3  100  200  150450kW
The total reactive load is Qtot  Q1  Q2  Q3  80.2  150  93kVAR

The equivalent system PF is

 Q  323.2 
PF  cos   cos  tan 1   cos  tan 1   0.812lagging
The line current is  P  450 
Ptot 450000
IL    667 A
3VL cos  3  480  0.812
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

b. The real and reactive powers of loads 1 and 2 are the same. The reactive
power of load 3 is

Q3  P3 tan   150 tan   cos 1 0.85   93kVAR

The total real load is Ptot  P1  P2  P3  100  200  150450kW

The total reactive load is Qtot  Q1  Q2  Q3  80.2  150  93kVAR
The equivalent system PF is
 Q  137.2 
PF  cos   cos  tan 1   cos  tan 1   0.957lagging
 P  450 
The line current is
Ptot 450000
IL    566 A
3VL cos  3  480  0.957
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

c. The transmission line losses in the first case are

PLL  3I L2 RL  1344700RL
The transmission line losses in the second case are

PLL  3I L2 RL  96170RL
We notice that the transmission power losses are 28% less in the
second case, while the real power supplied to the loads is the same.
 STEADY-STATE OPERATION OF MOTOR: POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

The ability to adjust the power factor of one or more loads in a power
system can significantly affect the efficiency of the power system: the lower
the PF, the greater the losses in the power lines. Since most loads in a typical
power system are induction motors, having one or more over-excided
synchronous motors (leading loads) in the system is useful for the following
reasons:
1. A leading load supplies some reactive power to lagging loads in the
system. Since this reactive power does not travel along the transmission
line, transmission line current is reduced reducing power losses.
2. Since the transmission line carries less current, the line can be smaller for
a given power flow reducing system cost.
3. The over-excited mode of synchronous motor increases the motor’s
maximum
Usage torque. motors or other equipment increasing the overall
of synchronous
system’s PF is called power-factor correction. Since a synchronous motor
can provide PF correction, many loads that can accept constant speed
are driven by over-excited synchronous motors.
 STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Consider a 60 Hz synchronous motor.
When the power is applied to the stator windings, the rotor (and,
therefore its magnetic field BR) is stationary. The stator magnetic
field BS starts sweeping around the motor at synchronous speed.
Note that the induced torque on the shaft
 ind  kBR  BS
is zero at t = 0 since both magnetic fields are aligned.

At t = 1/240 s the rotor has barely moved but the stator

magnetic field BS has rotated by 900. Therefore, the
torque on the shaft is non-zero and counter-clockwise.
 STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
At t = 1/120 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields point in
opposite directions, and the induced torque on the shaft is
zero again.

At t = 3/240 s the stator magnetic fields point to

the right, and the induced torque on the shaft
is non-zero but clockwise.

Finally, at t = 1/60 s the rotor and stator magnetic fields are

aligned again, and the induced torque on the shaft is zero.

During one electrical cycle, the torque was counter-

clockwise and then clockwise, and the average torque
is zero. The motor will vibrate heavily and finally
overheats!
 STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Three basic approaches can be used to safely start a synchronous

motor:
1. Reduce the speed of the stator magnetic field to a low enough
value that the rotor can accelerate and two magnetic fields
lock in during one half-cycle of field rotation. This can be
achieved by reducing the frequency of the applied electric
power (which used to be difficult but can be done now).
2. Use an external prime mover to accelerate the synchronous
motor up to synchronous speed, go through the paralleling
procedure, and bring the machine on the line as a generator.
Next, turning off the prime mover will make the synchronous
machine a motor.
3. Use damper windings or amortisseur windings – the most popular.
MOTOR STARTING BY AMORTISSEUR OR DAMPER
WINDINGS
Amortisseur (damper) windings are special
bars laid into notches carved in the rotor
face and then shorted out on each end by a
large shorting ring.
 MOTOR STARTING BY AMORTISSEUR OR DAMPER
WINDINGS

A diagram of a salient 2-pole rotor with an

amortisseur winding, with the shorting bars on
the ends of the two rotor pole faces
connected by wires (not quite the design of
actual machines).
We assume initially that
the rotor windings are
disconnected and only
a 3-phase set of voltages
are applied to the stator.

At t = 0, assume that BS
(stator field) is vertical.
As BS sweeps along in s counter-clockwise direction, it
induces a voltage in bars of the amortisseur winding:

eind   v  B   l
 MOTOR STARTING BY AMORTISSEUR OR DAMPER
WINDINGS

Here v – the velocity of the bar relative to the

magnetic field;
B – magnetic flux density vector;
l – length of conductor in the magnetic
field.

The bars at the top of the rotor are moving to the

right relative to the magnetic field: a voltage, with
direction out of page, will be induced. Similarly,
the induced voltage is into the page in the
bottom bars. These voltages produce a current
flow out of the top bars and into the bottom bars
generating a winding magnetic field Bw to the
right. Two magnetic fields will create a torque
 ind  kBW  BS
The resulting induced torque will be counter-clockwise.
 MOTOR STARTING BY AMORTISSEUR OR DAMPER
WINDINGS

At t = 1/240 s, BS has rotated 900 while the rotor has barely

moved. Since v is parallel to BS, the voltage induced in
the amortisseur windings is zero, therefore, no current in
wires create a zero-torque.
At t = 1/120 s, BS has rotated
another 900 and the rotor is
still. The voltages induced in
the bars create a current
inducing a magnetic field
pointing to the left. The torque
is counter-clockwise.

Finally, at t = 3/240 s, no voltage is

induced in the amortisseur windings
and, therefore, the torque will be
zero.
 MOTOR STARTING BY AMORTISSEUR OR DAMPER
WINDINGS
We observe that the torque is either counter-clockwise or zero, but it is
always unidirectional. Since the net torque is nonzero, the motor will speed
up.
However, the rotor will never reach the synchronous speed! If a rotor was
running at the synchronous speed, the speed of stator magnetic field BS
would be the same as the speed of the rotor and, therefore, no relative
motion between the rotor and the stator magnetic field. If there is no
relative motion, no voltage is induced and, therefore, the torque will be
zero.
Instead, when the rotor’s speed is close to synchronous, the regular field
current can be turned on and the motor will operate normally. In real
machines, field circuit are shorted during starting. Therefore, if a machine
has damper winding:
1. Disconnect the field windings from their DC power source and short
them out;
2. Apply a 3-phase voltage to the stator and let the rotor to accelerate up
to near-synchronous speed. The motor should have no load on its shaft
to enable motor speed to approach the synchronous speed as closely
as possible;
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
AND MOTORS

Synchronous generator and

synchronous motor are physically the
same machines!
A synchronous machine can supply
real power to (generator) or consume
real power (motor) from a power
system. It can also either consume or
supply reactive power to the system.
1. The distinguishing characteristic of
a synchronous generator
(supplying P) is that EA lies ahead
of V while for a motor EA lies
behind V.
2. The distinguishing characteristic of
a machine supplying reactive
power Q is that Eacos > V
(regardless whether it is a motor or
generator). The machine
consuming reactive power Q has
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS
The speed and power that can be obtained from a synchronous motor or
generator are limited. These limited values are called ratings of the
machine. The purpose of ratings is to protect the machine from damage.
Typical ratings of synchronous machines are voltage, speed, apparent
power (kVA), power factor, field current and service factor.

1. Voltage, Speed, and Frequency

The rated frequency of a synchronous machine depends on the power
system to which it is connected. The commonly used frequencies are 50 Hz
(Europe, Asia), 60 Hz (Americas), and 400 Hz (special applications: aircraft,
spacecraft, etc.). Once the operation frequency is determined, only one
rotational speed in possible for the given number of poles:
120 f e
nm 
P
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS
A generator’s voltage depends on the flux, the rotational speed, and the
mechanical construction of the machine. For a given design and speed,
the higher the desired voltage, the higher the flux should be. However, the
flux is limited by the field current.
The rated voltage is also limited by the windings insulation breakdown limit,
which should not be approached closely.

Is it possible to operate a synchronous machine at a frequency other than

the machine is rated for? For instance, can a 60 Hz generator operate at 50
Hz?

The change in frequency would change the speed. Since EA = K,

the maximum allowed armature voltage changes when frequency
changes.
Specifically, if a 60 Hz generator will be operating at 50 Hz, its
operating voltage must be derated to 50/60 or 83.3 %.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS

2. Apparent power and Power factor

Two factors limiting the power of electric machines are
1) Mechanical torque on its shaft (usually, shaft can handle much more
torque)
2) Heating of the machine’s winding
The practical steady-state limits are set by heating in the windings.
The maximum acceptable armature current sets the apparent power rating
for a generator:
S  3V I A
If the rated voltage is known, the maximum accepted armature current
determines the apparent power rating of the generator:

S  3V ,rated I A,max  3VL,rated I L,max

The power factor of the armature current is irrelevant for heating the
armature windings.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS
The stator cupper losses also do not depend on the current angle:

PSCL  3I A2 RA
Since the current angle is irrelevant to the armature heating, synchronous
generators are rated in kVA rather than in KW.
The rotor (field winding) cupper losses are:
PRCL  I F2 RF
Allowable heating sets the maximum field
current, which determines the maximum
acceptable armature voltage EA. These
translate to restrictions on the lowest
acceptable power factor:
The current IA can have different angles (that
depends on PF). EA is a sum of V and jXSIA.
We see that, (for a constant V) for some
angles the required EA exceeds its maximum
value.
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS
If the armature voltage exceeds its maximum allowed value, the windings
could be damaged. The angle of IA that requires maximum possible EA
specifies the rated power factor of the generator. It is possible to operate
the generator at a lower (more lagging) PF than the rated value, but only
by decreasing the apparent power supplied by the generator.
Synchronous motors are usually rated in terms of real output power and the
lowest PF at full-load conditions.

3. Short-time operation and service factor

A typical synchronous machine is often able to supply up to 300% of its
rated power for a while (until its windings burn up). This ability to supply
power above the rated values is used to supply momentary power surges
during motor starts.
It is also possible to use synchronous machine at powers exceeding the
rated values for longer periods of time, as long as windings do not have
time to hit up too much before the excess load is removed. For instance, a
generator that could supply 1 MW indefinitely, would be able to supply 1.5
MW for 1 minute without serious harm and for longer periods at lower power
 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE RATINGS
The maximum temperature rise that a machine can stand depends on the
insulation class of its windings. The four standard insulation classes with they
temperature ratings are:
A – 600C above the ambient temperature
B – 800C above the ambient temperature
F – 1050C above the ambient temperature
H – 1250C above the ambient temperature
The higher the insulation class of a given machine, the greater the power
that can be drawn out of it without overheating its windings.

The overheating is a serious problem and synchronous machines should not

be overheated unless absolutely necessary. However, power requirements
of the machine not always known exactly prior its installation. Because of
this, general-purpose machines usually have their service factor defined as
the ratio of the actual maximum power of the machine to the rating on its
plate.
For instance, a machine with a service factor of 1.15 can actually be
operated at 115% of the rated load indefinitely without harm.