DBMS Languages

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Data Manipulation Language (DML)

 Data Control Language (DCL)

 Transaction control Language (TCL)

NCS, APS /SITE 1

Data Definition Language

Create

Alter

Drop

Rename

Truncate
NCS, APS / SITE 2
Data Manipulation Language

Insert

Select

Update

Delete

NCS, APS / SITE 3

Data Control Language
Grant
Revoke

Transaction Control Language

Commit
Rollback
Savepoint
NCS, APS / SITE 4
DDL
Create
Syntax:
Create table TN
( CN1 data type ,
CN2 data type,
CN3 data type,
CN4 data type,
….
);

NCS, APS / SITE 5

 Example:
SQL> create table emp (
2 id number(3),
3 salary number(10),
4 name varchar2(30),
5 dob date,
6 addr varchar2(20)
7 );
Table created.

NCS, APS / SITE 6

DML
Insert (Simple form)
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename VALUES
( val1,val2, val3, val4 …);

Example
SQL> insert into emp values
(3,6000,‘siva','01-jan-75','vellore');
1 row created.

NCS, APS / SITE 7

Inserting interactively

INSERT INTO <tablename> VALUES

( &column name1,
&column name2,
&column name3,
&column name4,
…);

NCS, APS / SITE 8

SQL> insert into emp values(
2 &id,&salary,'&name','&dob','&addr');
Enter value for id: 1
Enter value for salary: 2000
Enter value for name: red
Enter value for dob: 23-oct-1986
Enter value for addr: vellore
old 2: &id,&salary,'&name','&dob','&addr')
new 2: 1,2000,'red','23-oct-1986','vellore')

1 row created.
NCS, APS / SITE 9
SQL> /
Enter value for id: 2
Enter value for salary: 2000
Enter value for name: blue
Enter value for dob: 24-oct-1987
Enter value for addr: chennai
old 2: &id,&salary,'&name','&dob','&addr')
new 2: 2,2000,'blue','24-oct-1987','chennai')

1 row created.

NCS, APS / SITE 10

DML
Select (Entire Table)
Syntax:
Select * from tablename;

Example:
SQL> select * from emp;
ID SALARY NAME DOB ADDR
---------- ---------- ----------------------- ------------- --------------------
1 2000 red 23-OCT-86 vellore
2 2000 blue 24-OCT-87 chennai
3 6000 siva 01-jan-75 vellore
NCS, APS / SITE 11
Select (Particular column)
Syntax:
Select CN1,CN2 from tablename;

Example:

SQL> select id from emp;

ID
----------
1
2
3
NCS, APS / SITE 12
DDL

ALTER

Add new columns

Modify the data type

Increase / decrease the column width

Drop column

Rename the column name

NCS, APS / SITE 13

Alter (Add –to add new columns)

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD columnname datatype;

Example:

SQL> alter table emp add age number(2);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 14

Alter (Modify the data type)

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
MODIFY column name newdatatype;
Example:
SQL> alter table emp modify age varchar2(2);
Table altered.
SQL> alter table emp modify age number(2);
Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 15

SQL> alter table emp modify id varchar2(3);

alter table emp modify id varchar2(3)

ERROR at line 1:

ORA-01439: column to be modified must be empty to

change datatype

NCS, APS / SITE 16

Alter ( Increase / decrease the column width)
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename
MODIFY column name datatype newwidth;
Example:
SQL> alter table emp modify age number(4);
Table altered.

SQL> alter table emp modify age number(2);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 17

SQL> alter table emp modify id number(2);
alter table emp modify id number(2)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01440: column to be modified must be empty to
decrease precision or scale

SQL> alter table emp modify id number(4);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 18

Alter (Drop –delete column)

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE tablename

DROP COLUMN columnname;

Example:

SQL> alter table emp drop column dob;

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 19

Alter (Rename the column Name)

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE tablename

RENAME COLUMN oldcn TO newcn;

Example:
SQL> alter table emp11
rename column eno to emp_no;
Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 20

RENAME
Changes table name
Syntax:
RENAME old tablename TO new tablename;
Example:
SQL> rename emp to emp1;
Table renamed.

SQL> rename emp1 to emp;

Table renamed.

NCS, APS / SITE 21

TRUNCATE
Removes the rows, not the definition
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE tablename;
Example:
SQL> truncate table emp;
Table truncated.

SQL> select * from emp;

no rows selected

NCS, APS / SITE 22

DROP
Removes the rows and table definition
Syntax:
DROP TABLE <tablename>;
Example:
SQL> drop table emp;
Table dropped.

SQL> select * from emp;

select * from emp
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist
NCS, APS / SITE 23
To view the structure of the table
Syntax:
DESC tablename;
Example:
SQL> desc emp11;
Name Null? Type
---------------------------------- -------- -----------------------
ENO NUMBER(3)
ENAME VARCHAR2(5)
AGE NUMBER(3)

NCS, APS / SITE 24

DML
Insert (null values)
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename VALUES
( val1,’’,’’,val4);
Example
SQL> insert into emp11 values
(1,'',25);
1 row created.
SQL> select * from emp11;
ENO ENAME AGE
---------- ----------- -----------
1 25
NCS, APS / SITE 25
DML
Insert (to particular columns)
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename (cn1,cn2) VALUES
( val1,val2);
Example
SQL> insert into emp11(eno,ename) values (2,'y');
1 row created.
SQL> select * from emp11;
ENO ENAME AGE
---------- ----------- ----------
1 25
2 y
NCS, APS / SITE 26
Select (Particular rows)
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM tablename
WHERE conditions;
Example:
SQL> select * from emp11
where ename='y';
ENO ENAME AGE
---------- ----------- ----------
2 y
SQL> select * from emp11
where ename='Y';
no rows selected

NCS, APS / SITE 27

Select (Particular column and rows)
Syntax:
SELECT cn1,cn2 FROM tablename
WHERE conditions;
Example:
SQL> select eno,age from emp11
where eno=1;

ENO AGE
---------- ----------
1 25

NCS, APS / SITE 28

Select (using NULL value)
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM tablename
WHERE cn IS NULL;
Example:
SQL> select * from emp11
where ename is null;
ENO ENAME AGE
---------- ----------- ----------
1 25

NCS, APS / SITE 29

SQL> select * from emp11
where ename is not null;

ENO ENAME AGE

---------- ----------- ----------
2 y 26
3 z 25

NCS, APS / SITE 30

Select (with Alias name)
Syntax:
SELECT cn1 alias name 1, cn2 alias name 2
FROM tablename;
Example:
SQL> select eno emp_no, age old
from emp11;
EMP_NO OLD
------------ ----------
1 25
2 26
3 25
NCS, APS / SITE 31
Select (with distinct clause)
Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT cn
FROM tablename;
Example:
SQL> select distinct age
from emp11;
AGE
----------
25
26
NCS, APS / SITE 32
UPDATE (Simple update)
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET col = new value;
Example:
SQL> update emp11
set age=27;

3 rows updated.

NCS, APS / SITE 33

UPDATE (Using where clause)
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET col1 = new value, col2 = new value
WHERE conditions;
Example:
SQL> update emp11
set age=25
where eno=2;

1 row updated.
NCS, APS / SITE 34
UPDATE (Using Null)
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET col1 = new value, col2 = new value
WHERE cn IS NULL;
Example:
SQL> update emp11 set age=25
where ename is null;
1 row updated.
SQL> update emp11 set age=27
where ename is not null;
2 rows updated.

NCS, APS / SITE 35

UPDATE (Using Null data)
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename
SET col1 = ‘’, col2 = ‘’
WHERE conditions;
Example:
SQL> update emp11 set ename=''
where eno=2;
1 row updated.
SQL> update emp11 set ename=‘’
where eno=4;
0 rows updated.

NCS, APS / SITE 36

DELETE (Delete all rows)

Syntax:

DELETE FROM tablename;

Example:

SQL> delete from emp11;

3 rows deleted.

NCS, APS / SITE 37

DELETE (Using where clause –delete specific rows)
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
WHERE conditions;

Example
SQL> delete from emp11
where ename='z';

1 row deleted.

NCS, APS / SITE 38

DELETE(Using Null)
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename
WHERE cn IS NULL;
Example
SQL> delete from emp11
where ename is null;
1 row deleted.
SQL> delete from emp11
where age is not null;
2 rows deleted.
NCS, APS / SITE 39
Operators in SQL

Arithmetic operator: +, -, *, /

Logical Operator – AND, OR, NOT

Comparison Operator –
=, !=, <, <=, >, >=,
between, not between,
in, not in, like, not like,
is null, is not null

NCS, APS / SITE 40

SQL> select * from stu;
REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34
2 25 43
3 34 21
4 12 14
SQL> select c1+c2 ad, c1-c2 sub, c1*c2 mul, c1/c2 div from stu;
AD SUB MUL DIV
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
61 -7 918 .794117647
68 -18 1075 .581395349
55 13 714 1.61904762
26 -2 168 .857142857

NCS, APS / SITE 41

SQL> update stu set total = c1+c2
where regno=&regno;
Enter value for regno: 1
old 2: where regno=&regno
new 2: where regno=1

1 row updated.

SQL> /
Enter value for regno: 2
old 2: where regno=&regno
new 2: where regno=2

1 row updated.

NCS, APS / SITE 42

Logical Operator :
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM tn
WHERE cond1 L.OP cond2;
Example: (AND)
SQL> select * from stu
where regno=1 and c1=27;
REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34 61
SQL> select * from stu
where regno=1 and c1=25;
no rows selected
NCS, APS / SITE 43
Example: (OR)

SQL> select * from stu

where regno=1 or c1=25;

REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34 61
2 25 43 68

NCS, APS / SITE 44

Comparison Operators:
Syntax for =, !=, >, >=, <, <=:
SELECT * FROM tn
WHERE cn com.op value;
Example:
SQL> select * from stu where c1=12;
REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
4 12 14 26
SQL> select * from stu where regno != 3;
REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34 61
2 25 43 68
4 12 14 26 NCS, APS / SITE 45
 SQL> select * from stu where c2 >30;

REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34 61
2 25 43 68

SQL> select * from stu where c2 >= 34;

REGNO C1 C2 TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 27 34 61
2 25 43 68

NCS, APS / SITE 46

Comparison Operators:
Syntax for BETWEEN, NOT BETWEEN:
SELECT * FROM tn
WHERE cn com.op value1 AND value2;
Example:
SQL> select total from stu where total between 55 and 65;
TOTAL
----------
61
55
SQL> select c1 from stu where c1 not between 25 and 35;
C1
----------
12

NCS, APS / SITE 47

Comparison Operators:
Syntax for IN, NOT IN:
SELECT * FROM tn
WHERE cn com.op (v1, v2,…);
Example:
SQL> select total from stu where total in (78,56,26);
TOTAL
----------
26
SQL> select c1 from stu where c1 not in(25,34,27,55);
C1
----------
27
NCS, APS / SITE 48
SQL> select * from emp11 where ename in('a','y','Y');

ENO ENAME AGE

---------- ----------- ----------
2 y

SQL> select empno,hiredate from emp

where hiredate in ('23-JAN-82','01-MAY-81');

EMPNO HIREDATE
----------- --------------
7698 01-MAY-81
7934 23-JAN-82
NCS, APS / SITE 49
 SQL> select * from emp11;
ENO ENAME AGE
-------- ----------- ----------
1 sahil 25
2 anu
3 vijay 26

Comparison Operators:
Syntax for LIKE, NOT LIKE:
SELECT * FROM tn
WHERE cn com.op (pattern);

NCS, APS / SITE 50

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('s%');
ENAME
---------
sahil

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('%u');

ENAME
---------
anu

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('S%l');

no rows selected

NCS, APS / SITE 51

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('v%y');
ENAME
---------
vijay
SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('___');
ENAME
---------
anu
SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('_i%');
ENAME
---------
vijay

NCS, APS / SITE 52

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('s_h%');
ENAME
---------
sahil

SQL> select ename from emp11 where ename like ('%i_');

ENAME
---------
sahil

NCS, APS / SITE 53

Constraints:
Domain Integrity Constraints:

Not Null, Check

Entity Integrity Constraints:

Unique, Primary Key

Referential Integrity Constraints:

Foreign Key

NCS, APS / SITE 54

Syntax 1 (during Create):
CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype con_type,
cn2 datatype con_type,
cn3 datatype con_type,
. . . );

Example:
SQL> create table emp2
(eno number(2) primary key,
ename varchar2(10) not null,
address varchar2(20) unique,
salary number(4) check (salary >=5000),
age number(2) check (age between 18 and 60));
Table created.
NCS, APS / SITE 55
Syntax 2 (constraint name along with cn):
CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype CONSTRAINT con_name con_type,
cn2 datatype CONSTRAINT con_name con_type,
cn3 datatype CONSTRAINT con_name con_type,
. . . );
Example:
SQL> create table dept2
(dno number(2) constraint dept_dno_pk primary key,
dname varchar(7) constraint dept_dn_nn not null,
dloc varchar(7) constraint dept_dl_uni unique,
no_of_emp number(3) constraint dept_emp_chk check (no_of_emp>10));

Table created.
NCS, APS / SITE 56
Syntax 3(with constraint name):
CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype,
CONSTRAINT con_name con_type (cn1), . . . );

Example:
SQL> create table c1 ( a number(3), b varchar2(5), c varchar2(7),
constraint c1_a_pk primary key (a),
constraint c1_b_uni unique (b),
constraint c1_c_chk check (c like ('s%')));

Table created.;

NCS, APS / SITE 57

Syntax 1 (Foreign key):

CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype REFERENCES parent_tn (pk cn) );

Example:

SQL> create table c2

(f number(3) references c1 (a));

Table created.

NCS, APS / SITE 58

Syntax 2 (Foreign key):

CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype CONSTRAINT con_name REFERENCES
parent_tn (pk cn) );

Example

SQL> create table c3

(d number(3) constraint c3_d_fk references c1 (a));

Table created.
NCS, APS / SITE 59
Syntax 3(with constraint name):
CREATE TABLE tn
(cn1 datatype,
CONSTRAINT con_name FOREIGN KEY (cn1)
REFERENCES parent_tn (pk cn) );

Example:
SQL> create table c4
(s number(3),
constraint c3_s_fk foreign key(s) references c1 (a));

Table created.
NCS, APS / SITE 60
SQL> create table works
(emp_no number(4),
dnum number(3),
constraint works_eno_fk foreign key(emp_no) references
emp2(eno),
constraint works_dnum_fk foreign key(dnum) references
dept2(dno),
constraint works_pk primary key(emp_no,dnum));

Table created.

NCS, APS / SITE 61

Constraints (Using ALTER Command):

Syntax (for Primary key, Unique & Check):

ALTER TABLE tn

ADD CONSTRAINT con_name con_type (cn);

Example:
SQL> alter table emp11 add constraint pk_eno_emp11

primary key(eno);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 62

SQL> alter table emp11 add constraint un_age_emp11
unique(age);

Table altered.

SQL> alter table emp11 add constraint chk_age_emp11

check (age between 18 and 58);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 63

Syntax (for Not Null):
ALTER TABLE tn

MODIFY cn datatype

CONSTRAINT con_name NOT NULL;

Example:
SQL> alter table emp11 modify ename varchar2(5)

constraint emp11_ename_nn not null;

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 64

Syntax (for Foreign key):

ALTER TABLE tn

ADD CONTRAINT con_name FOREIGN KEY (cn1)

REFERENCES parent_tn (pk cn);

Example:
SQL> alter table emp11 add constraint fk_dno_emp11

foreign key (dno) references dept1 (dno);

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 65

Dropping the Constraints:

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tn

DROP CONSTRAINT con_name;

Example:
SQL> alter table emp11

drop constraint chk_age_emp11;

Table altered.

NCS, APS / SITE 66

SQL * PLUS FUNCTIONS:
Group functions
Single Row Functions

Group functions:
Result based on group of rows.

Single Row Functions:

returns only one value for every row.
Can be used in SELECT command and included in
WHERE clause

NCS, APS / SITE 67

Group functions:
Result based on group of rows.

Syntax:
SELECT gf (cn) FROM tn;

Example:
SQL> select min(sal) from emp;

MIN(SAL)

---------------

800
NCS, APS / SITE 68
SQL> select max(sal) from emp;
MAX(SAL)
---------------
5000

SQL> select avg(sal) from emp;

AVG(SAL)
---------------
2073.21429

SQL> select sum(sal) from emp;

SUM(SAL)
--------------
29025
NCS, APS / SITE 69
SQL> select stddev(sal) from emp;
STDDEV(SAL)
---------------------
1182.50322

SQL> select variance(sal) from emp;

VARIANCE(SAL)
-----------------------
1398313.87

SQL> select count(*) from emp;

COUNT(*)
---------------
14
NCS, APS / SITE 70
SQL> select count(sal) from emp;

COUNT(SAL)
-----------------
14

SQL> select count(distinct sal) from emp;

COUNT(DISTINCTSAL)
-------------------------------
12

NCS, APS / SITE 71

Single Row Functions (Types):
Numeric functions
Character functions
Date functions
Conversion functions
Miscellaneous functions

Numeric functions:
Syntax:
SELECT n.f(CN) from TN ;
SELECT n.f(value) from DUAL;

NCS, APS / SITE 72

SQL> select abs(-34) from dual;
ABS(-34)
---------
34

SQL> select cos(0) from dual;

COS(0)
---------
1

SQL> select cosh(180) from dual;

COSH(180)
---------
7.447E+77

NCS, APS / SITE 73

SQL> select exp(10) from dual;
EXP(10)
---------
22026.466
SQL> select power(2,2) from dual;
POWER(2,2)
----------
4
SQL> select mod(10,2) from dual;
MOD(10,2)
---------
0
SQL> select mod(10,3) from dual;
MOD(10,3)
---------
1
NCS, APS / SITE 74
SQL> select ceil(87.7) from dual;
CEIL(87.7)
----------
88
SQL> select ceil(87.3) from dual;
CEIL(87.3)
----------
88
SQL> select floor(87.7) from dual;
FLOOR(87.7)
-----------
87
SQL> select floor(87.3) from dual;
FLOOR(87.3)
-----------
87
NCS, APS / SITE 75
SQL> select round(34.645,2) from dual;
ROUND(34.645,2)
---------------
34.65

SQL> select round(34.643,2) from dual;

ROUND(34.643,2)
---------------
34.64

SQL> select round(98.645) from dual;

ROUND(98.645)
-------------
99

NCS, APS / SITE 76

SQL> select trunc(34.645,2) from dual;
TRUNC(34.645,2)
---------------
34.64

SQL> select trunc(34.643,2) from dual;

TRUNC(34.643,2)
---------------
34.64

SQL> select trunc(34.645) from dual;

TRUNC(34.645)
-------------
34
NCS, APS / SITE 77
SQL> select sqrt(100) from dual;
SQRT(100)
---------
10
SQL> select ln(100) from dual;
LN(100)
---------
4.6051702
SQL> select sign(3) from dual;
SIGN(3)
---------
1
SQL> select sign(-3) from dual;
SIGN(-3)
---------
-1
NCS, APS / SITE 78
Character functions:
Syntax:
SELECT c.f(CN) from TN ;
SELECT c.f(value) from DUAL;

SQL> select initcap('senthil') from dual;

INITCAP
-------
Senthil

SQL> select lower('SENTHIL') from dual;

LOWER('
-------
senthil

NCS, APS / SITE 79

SQL> select upper('senthil') from dual;
UPPER('
-------
SENTHIL

SQL> select ltrim('senthil','sen') from dual;

LTRI
----
thil

SQL> select ltrim('senthil','il') from dual;

LTRIM('
-------
senthil

NCS, APS / SITE 80

SQL> select ltrim('sensenthil','sen') from dual;
LTRI
----
thil

SQL> select ltrim('sensenthil','SEN') from dual;

LTRIM('SEN
----------
sensenthil

SQL> select rtrim('senthil','thil') from dual;

RTR
---
sen

NCS, APS / SITE 81

SQL> select translate('senthil','s','b') from dual;
TRANSLA
-------
benthil

SQL> select translate('senthil','se','b') from dual;

TRANSL
------
bnthil

SQL> select translate('senthil','sl','b') from dual;

TRANSL
------
benthi

NCS, APS / SITE 82

SQL> select replace('senthil','sen','b') from dual;
REPLA
-----
bthil

SQL> select replace('senthil','sl','b') from dual;

REPLACE
-------
senthil

SQL> select substr('senthil',3,2) from dual;

SU
--
nt

NCS, APS / SITE 83

SQL> select lpad('senthil',15,'@') from dual;
LPAD('SENTHIL',
---------------
@@@@@@@@senthil
SQL> select rpad('senthil',15,'@') from dual;
RPAD('SENTHIL',
---------------
senthil@@@@@@@@
SQL> select length('senthil') from dual;
LENGTH('SENTHIL')
-----------------
7
SQL> select chr(74) from dual;
C
-
J
NCS, APS / SITE 84
Date functions:
Syntax:
SELECT d.f(CN) from TN ;
SELECT d.f(value) from DUAL;

SQL> select add_months('18-jan-2001',2) from dual;

ADD_MONTH
---------
18-MAR-01

SQL> select add_months('18-dec-2001',2) from dual;

ADD_MONTH
---------
18-FEB-02

NCS, APS / SITE 85

SQL> select last_day('18-jan-2001') from dual;
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-JAN-01

SQL> select last_day('27-feb-2002') from dual;

LAST_DAY(
---------
28-FEB-02

SQL> select months_between('01-jan-2001','31-jan-2001') from dual;

MONTHS_BETWEEN('01-JAN-2001','31-JAN-2001')
-------------------------------------------
-.9677419

NCS, APS / SITE 86

SQL> select round(sysdate,'year') from dual;
ROUND(SYS
---------
01-JAN-09

SQL> select round(to_date('25-aug-09'),'year') from dual;

ROUND(TO_
---------
01-JAN-10

SQL> select round(sysdate,'month') from dual;

ROUND(SYS
---------
01-FEB-09

NCS, APS / SITE 87

SQL> select round(sysdate,'day') from dual;
ROUND(SYS
---------
25-JAN-09

SQL> select trunc(sysdate,'year') from dual;

TRUNC(SYS
---------
01-JAN-09

SQL> select trunc(sysdate,'month') from dual;

TRUNC(SYS
---------
01-JAN-09

NCS, APS / SITE 88

SQL> select trunc(sysdate,'day') from dual;
TRUNC(SYS
---------
25-JAN-09

SQL> select next_day('13-dec-2002','sunday') from dual;

NEXT_DAY(
---------
15-DEC-02

SQL> select next_day('13-dec-2002','wednesday') from dual;

NEXT_DAY(
---------
18-DEC-02

NCS, APS / SITE 89

SQL> select greatest ( '25-jan-2006', '23-feb-2009') from dual;
GREATEST('2
-----------
25-jan-2006

SQL> select greatest ( to_date('25-jan-2006'), to_date('23-feb-2009')) from

dual;
GREATEST(
---------
23-FEB-09

Conversion functions:
Syntax:
SELECT con.f(CN) from TN ;
SELECT con.f(value) from DUAL;
NCS, APS / SITE 90
SQL> select to_char(hiredate,'DDth month yyyy') from emp;
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'D
-------------------
17TH december 1980
02ND april 1981
SQL> select to_char(hiredate,'DDth fmmonth yyyy') from emp;
TO CHAR(HIREDATE,'D
-------------------
17TH december 1980
02ND april 1981
SQL> select to_char(hiredate,'DDth Month yyyy') from emp;
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'D
-------------------
17TH December 1980
02ND April 1981

NCS, APS / SITE 91

SQL> select to_char(hiredate,'ddth MONTH yy') from emp;
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,
-----------------
17th DECEMBER 80
02nd APRIL 81

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'dd/mm/yy') from dual;

TO_CHAR(
--------
27/01/09

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'MONTH dd yy') from dual;

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE
---------------
JANUARY 27 09
NCS, APS / SITE 92
SQL> select to_date('03/mar/03') from dual;
TO_DATE('
---------
03-MAR-03

SQL> select to_date('27 JANUARY 09') from dual;

TO_DATE('
---------
27-JAN-09

SQL> select to_number('45') from dual;

TO_NUMBER('45')
---------------
45

NCS, APS / SITE 93

Miscellaneous functions:
Syntax:
SELECT m.f(CN) from TN ;
SELECT m.f(value) from DUAL;
SQL> select uid from dual;
UID
----------
66
SQL> select user from dual;
USER
------------------------------
SCOTT
SQL> select vsize('scott') from dual;
VSIZE('SCOTT')
--------------
5
NCS, APS / SITE 94
NVL Function:
Syntax:
select nvl(CN, value) from TN;
Example:
SQL> select seno, nvl(seno,0) from semp;
SENO NVL(SENO,0)
---------- -----------
0
1 1
1 1
0
4 4
4 4

6 rows selected.
NCS, APS / SITE 95
SET OPERATORS:

Union
Union all
Intersect
Minus

Syntax:
SELECT cn1, cn2 FROM TN1
set operator
SELECT cn3, cn4 FROM TN2;

NCS, APS / SITE 96

Example:
SQL> select * from fj1;
ENO NAM DNO
---------- --- ---
1 x cse
2 y cse
3 z eie

SQL> select * from fj2;

DNO DNAM
----- ---------
cse comp
mec mech
NCS, APS / SITE 97
SQL> select dno from fj1
2 union
3 select dno from fj2;
DNO
---
cse
eie
mec
SQL> select dno from fj1
2 union all
3 select dno from fj2;
DNO
---
cse
cse
eie
cse
mec NCS, APS / SITE 98
SQL> select dno from fj1
2 intersect
3 select dno from fj2;
DNO
---
cse
SQL> select dno from fj1
2 minus
3 select dno from fj2;
DNO
---
eie
SQL> select dno from fj2
2 minus
3 select dno from fj1;
DNO
---
mec
NCS, APS / SITE 99
Join:
To combine the data spread across tables
Performed by the ‘WHERE’ clause
Using Primary key, Foreign key columns
Types:
Simple Join
- Equi join
- Non-Equi join
Outer Join
- Left Outer Join
- Right Outer Join
- Full Outer Join
Self Join
NCS, APS / SITE 100
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1, table2
WHERE join conditions;

Equi Join:
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a, fj2 b
3 where a.dno = b.dno;

ENO NAM DNO DNAM

---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
NCS, APS / SITE 101
Natural Join
Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 NATURAL JOIN table2;

Example:
SQL> select eno, name, dno, dname
2 from fj1 natural join fj2 ;

ENO NAM DNO DNAM

---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp

NCS, APS / SITE 102

Left Outer Join:
Syntax 1:
SELECT columns
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.cn = table1.cn (+);
Example 1:
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a, fj2 b
3 where a.dno = b.dno(+);
ENO NAM DNO DNAM
---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
3 z eie

NCS, APS / SITE 103

Syntax 2:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON conditions;
Example 1:
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a left outer join fj2 b
3 on a.dno = b.dno;

ENO NAM DNO DNAM

---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
3 z eie

NCS, APS / SITE 104

Right Outer Join:
Syntax 1:
SELECT columns
FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.cn (+) = table1.cn ;
Example 1:
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a, fj2 b
3 where a.dno (+) = b.dno;
ENO NAM DNO DNAM
---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
mech

NCS, APS / SITE 105

 Syntax 2:
SELECT columns
FROM table1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
ON conditions;
Example 1:
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a right outer join fj2 b
3 on a.dno = b.dno;

ENO NAM DNO DNAM

---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
mech

NCS, APS / SITE 106

Full Outer Join:
Syntax :
SELECT columns
FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON conditions;
Example :
SQL> select eno, name, a.dno, dname
2 from fj1 a full outer join fj2 b
3 on a.dno = b.dno;
ENO NAM DNO DNAM
---- ------ ----- --------
1 x cse comp
2 y cse comp
3 z eie
mech
NCS, APS / SITE 107
SELF JOIN

SQL> select * from semp;

ENO ENAME SENO DNO SAL

---------- ---------- ---------- ----- ----------
1 kha cse 1000
2 pkr 1 cse 200
3 ncs 1 cse 500
4 sna mech 1000
5 cra 4 mech 300
6 kkn 4 mech 300

6 rows selected.

NCS, APS / SITE 108

SQL> select a.eno, a.ename supervisee, b.eno,
2 b.ename supervisor, a.dno, a.sal
3 from semp a, semp b
4 where a.seno=b.eno;

ENO SUPERV ENO SUPERV DNO SAL

------- ---------- -------- ----------- ------ -------
2 pkr 1 kha cse 200
3 ncs 1 kha cse 500
5 cra 4 sna mech 300
6 kkn 4 sna mech 300

NCS, APS / SITE 109

VIEW:
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT command;

Example:

SQL> select * from emp1;

ENO ENAM DNO
------ ---------- ----------
1x 10
2y

NCS, APS / SITE 110

SQL> create view v1 as
2 select * from emp1
3 where dno=10;
View created.
SQL> select * from v1;
ENO ENAM DNO
------ ---------- ----------
1x 10
SQL> insert into v1 values (6,'r',10);
1 row created.
SQL> insert into v1 values (7,'n',20);
1 row created.

NCS, APS / SITE 111

SQL> select * from emp1;
ENO ENAM DNO
------ ---------- ----------
1x 10
2y
6r 10
7n 20
SQL> select * from v1;
ENO ENAM DNO
------ ---------- ----------
1x 10
6r 10

NCS, APS / SITE 112

SQL> select * from dept1;
DNO DNAME
------ ----------
10 cse
30 mech
40 ece

SQL> create view v2 as

2 select eno, ename, emp1.dno, dname
3 from emp1, dept1
4 where emp1.dno = dept1.dno;
View created.

NCS, APS / SITE 113

SQL> select * from v2;
ENO ENAM DNO DNAME
---------- --------- ---------- -----------
1 x 10 cse
6 r 10 cse

SQL> insert into v2 values (8,'i',10,'cse');

insert into v2 values (8,'i',10,'cse')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01779: cannot modify a column which maps to a non key-
preserved table

NCS, APS / SITE 114

PL/SQL
Procedural language SQL

SQL statements combined with procedural constructs

*** Before running the PL/SQL block the following

command should be given to enable the output

SQL>SET SERVEROUTPUT ON;

NCS, APS / SITE 115

PL/SQL Block (Syntax):
DECLARE

Local declarations;

BEGIN

executable statements;

EXCEPTION

exception handlers;

END;

NCS, APS / SITE 116

Attributes
%type – used to refer to the database columns

%rowtype – represents a row in table

Syntax:

variablename tablename.columnname<attribute>

Example:

r student.rollno%type;

y student%rowtype;

NCS, APS / SITE 117

Control Structures:
Conditional control

- if then

- if then else

- if then elsif

Iterative control

- Simple loop

- For loop

- While loop

NCS, APS / SITE 118

Conditional Control:
Syntax:
IF condition THEN

statements;

ELSIF

statements;

END IF;

NCS, APS / SITE 119

Example:
declare
a emp1.age%type;
e emp1.eno%type;
begin
e:=&e;
select age into a from emp1 where eno=e;
if a>18 then
update emp1 set status = 'major' where eno=e;
else
update emp1 set status = 'minor' where eno=e;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('updated');
end;
/
NCS, APS / SITE 120
declare
a emp1.age%type;
e emp1.eno%type;
begin
e:=&e;
select age into a from emp1 where eno=e;
if (a>9 and a<15) then
update emp1 set category = 'school' where eno=e;
elsif (a>15 and a<25) then
update emp1 set category = 'college' where eno=e;
else
update emp1 set category = 'company' where eno=e;
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('updated');
end;
/
NCS, APS / SITE 121
Simple loop:
Syntax:
LOOP
statements;
EXIT WHEN condition;
END LOOP;

declare
a number:=100;
begin
loop
a:=a+25;
exit when a=250;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line(a);
end;
NCS, APS / SITE 122
WHILE loop
WHILE condition
LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;
declare
i number:=0;
j number:=0;
begin
while i<100 loop
j:=j+1;
i:=i+2;
dbms_output.put_line(i||','||j);
end loop;
end;
/
NCS, APS / SITE 123
FOR loop
FOR variable IN [REVERSE] initial value . . final value
LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;
declare
i number:=0;
j number:=0;
begin
for i in 1..10
loop
j:=j+1;
dbms_output.put_line(i+2||','||j);
end loop;
end;
NCS, APS / SITE 124
SQL> select * from student;

ROLLNO NAME MARK

---------- --------------- ---------
1 arya 35
2 pooja 36
3 ajith 32
4 shalini 37
5 surya 38
6 jho 33

6 rows selected.
NCS, APS / SITE 125
SQL> declare
2 r student.rollno%type;
3 n student.name%type;
4 begin
5 select rollno,name into r,n from student
6 where mark=35;
7 dbms_output.put_line(r);
8 dbms_output.put_line(n);
9 exception
10 when no_data_found then
11 dbms_output.put_line('such an item not available');
12 end;
13 /
1
arya

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NCS, APS / SITE 126
SQL> declare
2 r student.rollno%type;
3 n student.name%type;
4 begin
5 select rollno,name into r,n from student
6 where mark=34;
7 dbms_output.put_line(r);
8 dbms_output.put_line(n);
9 exception
10 when no_data_found then
11 dbms_output.put_line('such an item not available');
12 end;
13 /
such an item not available

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NCS, APS / SITE 127

CURSOR:
Cursor is the pointer to the temporary area (context area) created for storing
the data manipulated by a PL/SQL program

Cursor Processing:
Declare the cursor
CURSOR cursor_name IS select statement;
Open the cursor for a query
OPEN cursor_name;
Fetch the results into PL/SQL variables
FETCH cursor_name INTO list_of_variables;
Close the cursor
CLOSE cursor_name;

NCS, APS / SITE 128

Cursor Attributes:
%notfound ,
%found,
%rowcount,
%isopen
Example:
declare
cursor a is select * from stu;
aa stu%rowtype;
begin
if a%isopen then
dbms_output.put_line('cursor opened');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor not opened');
end if;
NCS, APS / SITE 129
open a;
loop
fetch a into aa;
exit when a%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line('Fetched rows '||a%rowcount);
end loop;
if a%isopen then
dbms_output.put_line('cursor opened');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor not opened');
end if;
close a;
if a%isopen then
dbms_output.put_line('cursor opened');
else
dbms_output.put_line('Cursor not opened');
end if;
NCS, APS / SITE 130
end;
declare
cursor c1 is select eno,age from emp1;
id emp1.eno%type;
a emp1.age%type;
ag emp1.age%type;
nu number;
begin
nu := &nu;
ag:=0;
open c1;
loop
fetch c1 into id, a;
exit when c1%notfound;

NCS, APS / SITE 131

if (nu = id) then
ag := a;
dbms_output.put_line(a);
end if;
end loop;
if (ag = 0) then
dbms_output.put_line('no not available');
end if;
close c1;
end;
Enter value for nu: 1
old 9: nu := &nu;
new 9: nu := 1;
26
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
NCS, APS / SITE 132
declare
cursor c1 is select eno,age from emp1;
sn emp1.eno%type;
a1 emp1.age%type;
begin
open c1;
loop
fetch c1 into sn,a1;
exit when c1%notfound;
if a1>18 then
update emp1 set status='major‘ where eno=sn;
else
update emp1 set status='minor‘ where eno=sn;
end if;
end loop;

NCS, APS / SITE 133

dbms_output.put_line(c1%rowcount||' rows are updated');
close c1;
end;
/
6 rows are updated
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SUBPROGRAMS
Subprograms are PL/SQL block that can be created and invoked
whenever required

* Procedure

* Function

NCS, APS / SITE 134

PROCEDURE

Procedure is the subprogram that does not return any value

Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE proc_name(parameters) IS
local declarations;
BEGIN
executable statements;
EXCEPTION

exception handlers;
END;

NCS, APS / SITE 135

create or replace procedure mark(snum number) is
m1 number;
m2 number;
begin
select mark1,mark2 into m1,m2
from student
where sno = snum;
If m1<m2 then
update student set mark3 = m1+m2 where sno = snum;
else
dbms_output.put_line('no update');
end if;

NCS, APS / SITE 136

exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line ('no data found');
end;

To Execute
exec proc_name (parameter values);

Parameter specification in list:

in – value passed
out – value returned
inout—value in and out

NCS, APS / SITE 137

create or replace procedure t3
(a in stu.regno%type,b out varchar) is
m2 number;
begin
select c2 into m2 from stu where regno=a;
if m2<25 then
b:='fail';
else
b:='pass';
end if;
end;
/

NCS, APS / SITE 138

SQL> variable v varchar2(7);
SQL> print v;
V
--------------------------------

SQL> exec t3(4,:v);

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> print v;
V
--------------------------------
fail

NCS, APS / SITE 139

create or replace procedure t4(a in out number) is
m1 number;
m2 number;
begin
select c1,c2 into m1,m2 from stu where regno=a;
if m2<25 then
a:=m2;
else
a:=m1;
end if;
end;
/

NCS, APS / SITE 140

SQL> variable d number;
SQL> begin
2 :d := 1;
3 end;
4 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print d;
D
----------
1
SQL> execute t4( :d);
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> print d;
D
----------
27
NCS, APS / SITE 141
SQL> create or replace procedure fib (n number) is
2 f1 number;
3 f2 number;
4 i number;
5 c number;
6 begin
7 f1 := 0;
8 f2 := 1;
9 dbms_output.put_line(f1);
10 dbms_output.put_line(f2);
11 for i in 3 .. n
12 loop
13 c := f1+f2;
14 dbms_output.put_line(c);

NCS, APS / SITE 142

15 f1 := f2;
16 f2 := c;
17 end loop;
18 end;
19 /
Procedure created.
To execute the procedure
SQL> exec fib(&n);
Enter value for n: 5
0
1
1
2
3
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NCS, APS / SITE 143

FUNCTION:
Function is a subprogram which returns a value.
Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION fun_name (parameters)

RETURN datatype IS

local declarations;

BEGIN

executable statements;

EXCEPTION

exception handlers;

END;

NCS, APS / SITE 144

create or replace function fact (num number)
return number is
i number;
f number;
begin
if (num=0 or num=1) then
return(1);
else
f:=1;
for i in 1 .. num
loop
f := f*i;
end loop;
return f;
end if;
end;
NCS, APS / SITE 145
SQL> declare
2 a number;
3 begin
4 a:=&a;
5 dbms_output.put_line( fact(a));
6 end;
7 /
Enter value for a: 4
old 4: a:=&a;
new 4: a:=4;
24
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> select fact(8) from dual;
FACT(8)
----------
40320
NCS, APS / SITE 146
create or replace function grt(a number)
return number is
m1 number;
m2 number;
begin
select c1,c2 into m1,m2 from stu where regno=a;
if m1>m2 then
return m1;
else
return m2;
end if;
end;
/
NCS, APS / SITE 147
TRIGGERS:
It is a stored procedure which is fired when any manipulation on the specified
table.
Syntax:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trig_name

BEFORE/AFTER INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE ON table name

FOR EACH STATEMENT/ FOR EACH ROW

DECLARE

local decl.;

BEGIN

executable statements;

END;
NCS, APS / SITE 148
Variable names used in triggers
*two are used :old and :new
- old specifies the row value before change
- new specifies the value after change

Example:
create or replace trigger tot
before insert on stu
for each row
begin
:new.total := :new.c1 + :new.c2;
end;

NCS, APS / SITE 149

create or replace trigger del1
before delete on dept1
for each row
begin
delete from emp1
where dno = :old.dno;
end;

create or replace trigger ins

before insert on emp1
for each row
begin
insert into dept1(dno) values (:new.dno);
end;
NCS, APS / SITE 150
create or replace trigger insc
after insert on dept1
for each row
begin
insert into emp1(dno) values (:new.dno);
end;

NCS, APS / SITE 151