Seismic Design of Structures

Preface

Earthquake
&
Seismic
 Preface

Earthquake is a shaking of the ground, caused by volcanic

activity or movement around geologic faults.

Seismic is related to, or caused by an earthquake or other

vibration of the earth.

If the ground is shaking you can say

"There's an earthquake!“
but you can't say
"There's a seismic!"
 Seismology

Seismology is science dealing with all aspects of earthquakes

Physical Seismology
 Study of the properties of the Earth’s interior
 Study of physical characteristics of seismic sources

Observational Seismology
 Recording earthquakes (microseismology)
 Cataloguing earthquakes
 Observing earthquake effects macroseismology)

Engineering Seismology
 Estimation of seismic hazard and risk
 Aseismic building
Composition of Earth

Inner Core (radius ~1290km)

Lehman discontinuity

Outer Core(thickness ~2200km)

Gutenberg discontinuity

Mantle(thickness ~2900km)
Mohorovičić discontinuity

Crust (thickness ~5 to 40km)

 The Shallowest part of the Earth: the Crust

 The crust is the most heterogeneous

layer in the Earth
 The crust is on average 33 km thick
for continents and 10 km thick
beneath oceans; however it varies
from just a few km to over 70 km
globally.
 Plate Tectonics

The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust & some
portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten outer core. This
sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic Plates.
The surface of Earth consists of seven major tectonic plates & many
smaller ones.
 Plate Tectonics

These plates move in different directions and at different speeds from

those of the neighbouring ones.

Most earthquakes in the world occur along the boundaries of the

tectonic plates are called Inter-plate Earthquakes.

A number of earthquakes also occur within the plate itself but away
from the plate boundaries these are called Intra-plate Earthquakes.

The plates interact with one another in three basic ways:

 They collide
 They move away from each other
 They slide one past another
 Plate Tectonics

A tectonic plate breaks in between. In both types, the slip

generated at the fault during EQs is along both vertical &
horizontal directions (Dip Slip) & lateral directions (Strike
Slip), with one of them dominating sometimes.
 Elastic Rebound Theory

• Because of friction, the blocks do not slide, but are deformed.

• When the stresses within rocks exceed friction, rupture occurs.
• Elastic energy, stored in the system, is released after rupture in
waves that radiate outward from the fault.
 Elastic Waves – Body Waves

Longitudinal waves:
• Faster than transversal waves
and thus arrive first.
• Particles oscillate in the
direction of spreading of wave.
• Compression & Expansion
• P-waves

Transversal waves:
• The particles oscillate in the
direction perpendicular to the
spreading direction.
• Shear waves – they do not
propagate through solids
• S-waves
 Elastic Waves – Surface Waves

Rayleigh and Love waves

 Their amplitude diminishes with the depth.

 They have large amplitudes and are slower than body waves.
 These are dispersive waves (large periods are faster).
 Measuring Instruments

Seismographs
 Seismographs are devices that record ground motion during
earthquakes.
 Observational Seismology

 We are now equipped to start recording and locating earthquakes.

For that we need a seismic network of as many stations as
possible.
 Minimal number of stations needed to locate the position of an
earthquake epicentre is three.
 To locate an earthquake we
need precise readings of the
times when P- and S-waves
arrive at a number of seismic
stations.
 Accurate absolute timing (with
a precission of 0.01 s) is
essential in seismology!
 Observational Seismology – Locating EQ

 Knowing the difference in

arrival times of the two waves,
and knowing their velocity, we
may calculate the distance of
the epicentre.
 This is done using the travel-
time curves which show how
long does it take for P- and S-
waves to reach some epicentral
distance.
 Observational Seismology – Locating EQ

 After we know the distance of

epicentre from at least three
stations we may find the epicentre
like this
 There are more sofisticated
methods of locating positions of
earthquake foci. This is a classic
example of an inverse problem.
 Observational Seismology – Magnitude

 Besides the position of the epicentre, the earthquake magnitude

is another defining element of each earthquake.
 Magnitude (defined by Charles Richter in 1935) is
proportional to the amount of energy released from the focus.
 Magnitude is calculated from the amplitudes of ground motion
as measured from the seismograms. You also need to know the
epicentral distance to take attenuation into account.
Observational Seismology – Magnitude
 Observational Seismology – Magnitude

 Formula:

 M = log(A) + c1 log (D) + c2

 where A is amplitude of ground motion, D is epicentral distance,

and c1, c2 are constants.

 There are many types of magnitude in seismological practice,

depending which waves are used to measure the amplitude:
ML, mb, Mc, Ms, Mw, ...
 Increase of 1 magnitude unit means ~32 times more released
seismic energy!
 Observational Seismology – Magnitude

Magnitude Effects Number per year

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––------------------------------------------------------
less than 2 Not felt by humans. Recorded by instruments
only. Numerous
2 Felt only by the most sensitive.
Suspended objects swing >1 000 000
3 Felt by some people. Vibration like a
passing heavy vehicle 100 000
4 Felt by most people. Hanging objects swing.
Dishes and windows rattle and may break 12 000
5 Felt by all; people frightened.
Chimneys topple; furniture moves 1 400
6 Panic. Buildings may suffer substantial
damage 160
7-8 Widespread panic. Few buildings remain
standing. Large landslides; fissures in ground 20
8-9 Complete devastation. Ground waves ~2
Observational Seismology – Magnitude

Equivalent
Magnitude Event Energy (tons TNT)
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2.0 Large quary blast 1
2.5 Moderate lightning bolt 5
3.5 Large ligtning bolt 75
4.5 Average tornado 5 100
6.0 Hiroshima atomic bomb 20 000
7.0 Largest nuclear test 32 000 000
7.7 Mt. Saint Helens eruption 100 000 000
8.5 Krakatoa eruption 1 000 000 000
9.5 Chilean earthquake 1960 32 000 000 000
Observational Seismology – Magnitude
 Observational Seismology – Intensity

 MACROSEISMOLOGY deals with effects of earthquakes on humans,

animals, objects and surroundings.
 The data are collected by field trips into the shaken area, and/or by
questionaires sent there.
 The effects are then expressed as earthquake INTENSITY at each of
the studied places.
 Intensity is graded according to macroseismic scales – Mercalli-
Cancani-Sieberg (MCS), Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK),
Modified Mercalli (MMI), European Macroseismic Scale (EMS).
 Observational Seismology – Intensity

European Macroseismic Scale (EMS 98)

EMS DEFINITION SHORT DESCRIPTION

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
–––––
I Not felt Not felt, even under the most favourable circumstances.
II Scarcely felt Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in
houses, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III Weak The vibration is weak and is felt indoors by a few people. People at
rest feel a swaying or light trembling.
IV Largely The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors by very
observed few. A few people are awakened. The level of vibration is not fright-
ening. Windows, doors and dishes rattle. Hanging objects swing.
V Strong The earthquake is felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. Many
sleeping people awake. A few run outdoors. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. China and glasses
clatter together. The vibration is strong. Top heavy objects topple
over. Doors and windows swing open or shut.
 Observational Seismology – Intensity

EMS DEFINITION SHORT DESCRIPTION

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
VI Slightly Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. Many people in
damaging buildings are frightened and run outdoors. Small objects fall. Slight
damage to many ordinary buildings e.g. fine cracks in plaster and
small pieces of plaster fall.
VII Damaging Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Furniture is shifted
and objects fall from shelves in large numbers. Many ordinary buildings
suffer moderate damage: small cracks in walls; partial collapse of
chimneys.
VIII Heavily Furniture may be overturned. Many ordinary buildings suffer
damaging damage: chimneys fall; large cracks appear in walls and a few
buildings may partially collapse.
IX Destructive Monuments and columns fall or are twisted. Many ordinary
buildings partially collapse and a few collapse completely.
 Observational Seismology – Intensity

EMS DEFINITION SHORT DESCRIPTION

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
X Very Many ordinary buildings collapse.
destructive
XI Devastating Most ordinary buildings collapse.
XII Completely Practically all structures above and below ground are
devastating heavily damaged or destroyed.

The Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA), i.e., maximum acceleration experienced

by the ground during shaking, is one way of quantifying the severity of the
ground shaking.
 Observational Seismology – Intensity

Results of macroseismic surveys are

presented on isoseismal maps.
Isoseismals are curves connecting the
places with same intensities.
Just approximately, epicentral
intensity is: Io = M + 2
One earthquake has just one
magnitude, but many intensities!

The intensity scales are based on three

features of shaking –
•perception by people and animals,
•performance of buildings and
•changes to natural surroundings.
 MAGNITUDE Vs INTENSITY

MAGNITUDE INTENSITY

 Quantitative measure of the actual  Qualitative measure of the actual

size of the earthquake. shaking at a location during an
 Richter Scale earthquake.
 An increase in magnitude (M) by 1.0  Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
implies 10 times higher waveform Scale and the MSK Scale.
amplitude and about 31 times  Both scales are quite similar and
higher energy released. For instance, range from I (least perceptive) to XII
energy released in a M7.7 (most severe). The intensity scales
earthquake is about 31 times that are based on three features of
released in a M6.7 earthquake, and is shaking – perception by people and
about 1000 (≈31×31) times that animals, performance of buildings,
released in a M5.7 earthquake. and changes to natural surroundings
Observational Seismology – Seismic Zones
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

Types of Magnitudes

 Local Magnitude ML
 Body wave magnitude Mb
 Surface wave magnitude Ms
 Moment magnitude Mw
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Richter magnitude (Local Magnitude ML)

Originally earthquake magnitudes were based on the amplitude of ground

motion displacement as measured by a standard seismograph. The best known of
these is the Richter Magnitude which was defined for local earthquakes in
southern California.

ML = logA + 2.56logD - 1.67

Where A is the measured ground motion (in micrometres) and D is the

distance from the event (in km). This is still used for measuring the magnitude
of shallow events at distances less than 600 km (today called the Local
Magnitude). For events larger than magnitude 8 this scale saturates and gives
magnitude estimates that are too small.
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Body wave magnitude Mb

For earthquakes measured at distances greater than 600 km magnitude can be

estimated from the formula.

Mb = log(A/T) + σ(D,h)

Where A is the maximum amplitude (in micrometres)of the P-waves

measured at period T (generally about one second) and σ is a calibration
term (in the range 6–8) that depends on distance from the event D and depth of
the event h.
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Surface wave magnitude Ms

For shallow earthquakes (i.e. ones that generate surface waves) magnitudes can
be estimated using the formula.

MS = log(A/T) + 1.66logΔ + 3.3

Where A is the maximum amplitude (in micrometres) of the Rayleigh waves,

T is the period (usually about 20 seconds) and Δ is the distance.
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Moment magnitude
Earthquakes occur when the ground ruptures. Stresses build up over time and
eventually a piece of the Earth's brittle crust deep under ground ruptures. This
rupture then grows until eventually a large area has shifted. The magnitude of the
earthquake is related to the size of the rupture.

Seismic moment (Mo) = μ* rupture area * slip length

where μ is the shear modulus of the crust (approx 3x1010 N/m)

Moment magnitude (Mw) = 2/3log(Mo) - 6.06

 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Nowadays the moment magnitude scale is the one used by

seismologists to measure large earthquakes.

 The historic Richter magnitude is calculated by measuring the

deflection on a seismometer corrected for distance from the event.

 Richter magnitudes underestimate the size of large events and are no

longer used.

 However, the constants used in the definition of Moment magnitude (Mw)

were chosen so that the magnitude numbers for Richter and Moment
magnitudes match for smaller events. For the largest events (the Mw 9.3
event on 26 December 2004) the rupture area can be 1200 km long by
100 km deep with a slip length of up to 15 m (it had a seismic moment of
1.1x1023 Nm)
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 In 1935 Charles Richter defined the magnitude of an

earthquake to be

where I is the intensity of the earthquake (measured by the

amplitude of a seismograph reading taken 100 km from the
epicenter of the earthquake) and S is the intensity of a
''standard earthquake'' (whose amplitude is 1 micron =10-4
cm).
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Early in the century the earthquake in San Francisco

registered 8.3 on the Richter scale. In the same year,
another earthquake was recorded in South America that
was four time stronger. What was the magnitude of the
earthquake in South American?
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

 Convert the first sentence to an equivalent mathematical

sentence or equation.

 Convert the second sentence to an equivalent mathematical

sentence or equation.
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

Solve for MSA.

 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

Can an earthquake have a negative magnitude?

 Very small events (e.g. If 2/3log(Mo)<6.0 or if logA+2.56logD<1.67 ) will

have a magnitude less than zero.

 In practice earthquakes this small, although quite numerous, are usually

only recorded and located in very small scale studies (e.g. studying
rockbursts in underground mines).
 Observational Seismology – Magnitudes

How is energy related to magnitude?

 Seismologists have determined that the energy radiated by an earthquake

is a function of both the amplitude of the waves and the duration of the
earthquake.

 For each unit increase in magnitude M, the amplitude increases by a factor

of 10.
 Empirical studies have found that: Energy is proportional to 10(1.5M).
 Consider the energy E1 from a magnitude M and E2 from magnitude M+1

 E2/E1 = (10(1.5M + 1.5))/( 101.5M)

 E2/E1 = 101.5 = 32
 Observational Seismology - Numerical

 The P-waves propagates radial to the source of the energy release and the velocity is expressed
by

where E is the Young’s modulus; is the Poisson’s ratio (0.25); and p is the density

 The shear wave velocity is given by

where G is the shear modulus

 The distance from hypocenter to observation point is given by

 where, T=difference in time of arrival of P and S waves at an observation point; S= distance

from hypocenter to observation point; and Vp and Vs are the velocity of P and S waves,
respectively
 Engineering Seismology

 Seismic Design Philosophy

(a) Minor (and frequent) shaking with no damage to structural and non-
structural elements;
(b) Moderate shaking with minor damage to structural elements, and some
damage to non-structural elements; and
(c) Severe (and infrequent) shaking with damage to structural elements, but
with NO collapse (to save life and property inside/adjoining the
building).
 Engineering Seismology

 Can a building be Earthquake-Proof…???

 Engineering Seismology – Inertial Force

 From Newton’s First Law of Motion, even

though the base of the building moves
with the ground, the roof has a tendency
to stay in its original position. But since
the walls and columns are connected to it,
they drag the roof along with them.

 This tendency to continue to remain in

the previous position is known as Inertia.
In the building, since the walls or columns
are flexible, the motion of the roof is
different from that of the ground.
• If the roof has a mass m and experiences an acceleration a, then from Newton’s II
Law of Motion, the inertia force FI is ma, and its direction is opposite to that of the
acceleration.
• Clearly, more mass means higher inertia force. Therefore, lighter buildings sustain
the earthquake shaking better.
 Engineering Seismology –
Characteristics of a Building

There are four aspects of buildings that architects and design

engineers work with to create the earthquake-resistant design
of a building, namely

 seismic structural configuration,

 lateral stiffness,
 lateral strength and
 ductility,

 in addition to other aspects like form, aesthetics, functionality

and comfort of building.
 Characteristics of a Building

Seismic Structural Configuration

Seismic structural configuration entails three main aspects,

namely

(a) geometry, shape and size of the building,

(b) location and size of structural elements, and
(c) location and size of significant non-structural elements
 Characteristics of a Building

Geometry
 Geometry

(a) overall geometry,

(b) structural elements (e.g., moment resisting frames and structural walls), and
(c) significant non-structural elements (e.g., façade glass)
 Geometry

 Influence of the geometry of a building on its earthquake

performance is best understood from the basic geometries of
convex and concave lenses

 Structures with convex geometries are preferred to those with

concave geometries, as the former demonstrate superior
earthquake performance.

 In the context of buildings, convex shaped buildings have direct

load paths for transferring earthquake shaking induced inertia
forces to their bases for any direction of ground shaking, while
concave buildings necessitate bending of load paths for
shaking of the ground along certain directions that result in stress
concentrations at all points where the load paths bend.
Geometry
 Characteristics of a Building

Geometry
Structural Stiffness, Strength and Ductility

• Lateral stiffness refers to the initial stiffness of the building, even

though stiffness of the building reduces with increasing damage.

• Lateral strength refers to the maximum resistance that the

building offers during its entire history of resistance to relative
deformation.

• Ductility towards lateral deformation refers the ratio of the

maximum deformation and the idealised yield deformation.
Structural Stiffness, Strength and Ductility
 Demands for EQ Resistant Buildings

 Firstly, buildings become expensive, if designed not to

sustain any damage during strong earthquake shaking.

 Secondly, they should be strong enough to not sustain any

damage during weak earthquake shaking.

 Thirdly, they should be stiff enough to not swing too much,

even during weak earthquakes.

 And, fourthly, they should not collapse during the expected

strong earthquake shaking to be sustained by them even
with significant structural damage.
 Demands for EQ Resistant Buildings

 Good seismic configuration

 Minimum lateral stiffness

 Minimum lateral strength

 Good overall ductility

The four virtues are achieved by inputs provided at all stages

of the development of the building, namely in its planning,
design, construction and maintenance.
 Demands for EQ Resistant Buildings

 Each building to be built is only one of the kind ever, and no

research & testing is performed on that building, unlike factory-
made products like aircrafts, ships and cars.
 To examine, if all requisite technical inputs have been met with
to ensure safety in the building, before allowing the building to
be built, the construction to be continued at different stages, or
the users to occupy the building.
These stages are:
 conceptual design stage,
 design development stage through peer review of the structural
design,
 construction stage through quality control & quality assurance
procedures put in place.