Network Models

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 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Fig 1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model.

It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

 THE OSI MODEL
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows communication between all types
of computer systems.
 It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.
 An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model
provides a solid basis for exploring data communications.
 Fig 2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.6
 OSI Reference Model

Provides means for end to end connectivity between

individual in human network using data network

Provides common representation of data transferred between application layer services.

Provides services to the presentation layer to organise its

dialogue and manage the data exchange

Provides services to segments, transfer and reassemble data for

communication between the end devices

Provides services to exchange the data over the network

between the end devices

Describes method of exchange of data frames between

devices over a common media

Describes the mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural means to activate, maintain and
deactivate physical connection for bit transmission to and from a network
TCP/IP model
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Fig 3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 Encapsulation

 Figure 3 reveals another aspect of data communications in the OSI

model: encapsulation.
 A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at
level 6.
 The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5,
and so on.
 In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N - 1 carries
the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N.
The concept is called encapsulation;
 level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is
data and which part is the header or trailer.
 For level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as
one integral unit.
Protocol data units (PDU) and encapsulation
Fig 4 An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Figure 5 Physical layer
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Physical layer is also concerned with the following:

o Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The

physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It
also defines the type of transmission medium.
o Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of
a stream of Bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded
into signals--electrical or optical.
Data rate:-
 The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also
defined by the physical layer.
 In other words, the physical layer defines the duration
of a bit, which is how long it lasts.

Synchronization of bits:-
The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level.
 In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.

Line configuration:-
 The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media.
 In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link.
 In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among
several devices.
 Physical layer

Physical topology:-
The physical topology defines how devices are connected to

make a network.
Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, a star

topology, a ring topology, a bus topology, or a hybrid topology.

Transmission mode:-
 The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission

between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Figure 6 Data link layer
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Other responsibilities of the data link layer

Framing:-
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.

Physical addressing:-
 If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data
link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of
the frame.
 If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the
receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to
the next one.

Flow control:-
 If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Responsibilities of the data link layer

Error control:-

 The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
 It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

Access control:-

 When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link
at any given time.
Figure 7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Figure 8 Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 Other responsibilities of the network layer
Logical addressing:-
 The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally.
 If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.
 The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender
and receiver.

Routing:-
 When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination.
 One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
Figure 9 Source-to-destination delivery
Figure 10 Transport layer
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Figure 11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
 Responsibilities of the transport layer
Service-point addressing:-
 Computers often run several programs at the same time.
 For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from
one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on
one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
 The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address).
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct process on that computer.

Segmentation and reassembly:-

 A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number.
 These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon
arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.

Connection control:-
 The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented.
 A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and
delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine.
 A connectionoriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets.
 After all the data are transferred,the connection is terminated.
Flow control:-
 Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control.
 However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather
than across a single link.

Error control:-
 Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control.
 However, error control at this layer is performed process-to process
rather than across a single link.
 The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss,
or duplication).
 Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Figure 12 Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
 Responsibilities of the session layer

Dialog control:-
 The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex
(one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

Synchronization:-
 The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synChronization
points, to a stream of data.
 For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently.
 In this case,if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages
that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to
501 need not be resent.
Figure 13 Presentation layer
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 Responsibilities of the presentation layer

Translation:-
 The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
 The infonnation must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
Because different computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different
encoding methods.
 The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its
sender-dependent format into a common format.
 The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Responsibilities of the presentation layer

Encryption:-

 To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

 Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network.
 Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to
its original form.

Compression:-

 Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.

 Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
 multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Figure 14 Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 Specific services provided by the application layer

Network virtual terminal:-

 A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and
it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the
remote host.
 The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to
the host, and vice versa.
 The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows the user to log on.

Mail services:-
This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
File transfer, access, and management:-
 This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in
the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer
locally.

Directory services:-
 This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
Figure 15 Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having
four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
TCP/IP model
TCP/IP model
Figure 16 TCP/IP and OSI model
TCP/IP and OSI model
 TCP/IP model

 The first layered protocol model for internetwork communications

was created in the early 1970s and is referred to as the Internet
model.
 It defines four categories of functions that must occur for
communications to be successful.
 The architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite follows the structure of
this model. Because of this, the Internet model is commonly referred
to as the TCP/IP model.
 Communication Process
 The TCP/IP model describes the functionality of the protocols that make up
the TCP/IP protocol suite. These protocols, which are implemented on both
the sending and receiving hosts, interact to provide end-to-end delivery of
applications over a network.

A complete communication process includes these steps:

1. Creation of data at the application layer of the originating source end device

2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data as it passes down th protocol stack

in the source end device

3. Generation of the data onto the media at the network access layer of the
stack
4. Transportation of the data through the internetwork, which consists of
media and any intermediary devices

5. Reception of the data at the network access layer of the destination end
device

6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the data as it passes up the stack in the

destination device

7. Passing this data to the destination application at the Application layer of

the destination end device
Protocol data units (PDU) and encapsulation
 As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to
be transmitted across the network media, various protocols add
information to it at each level. This is commonly known as the
encapsulation process.

 The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a Protocol
Data Unit (PDU). During encapsulation, each succeeding layer
encapsulates the PDU that it receives from the layer above in
accordance with the protocol being used. At each stage of the
process, a PDU has a different name to reflect its new appearance.
Although there is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in this
course, the PDUs are named according to the protocols of the
TCP/IP suite.
 Data - The general term for the PDU used at the Application layer
 Segment - Transport Layer PDU
 Packet - Internetwork Layer PDU
 Frame - Network Access Layer PDU
 Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting data over the
medium
 Process of sending and receiving
messages
 When sending messages on a network, the protocol stack on a host
operates from top to bottom.
 In the web server example, we can use the TCP/IP model to
illustrate the process of sending an HTML web page to a client.

 The Application layer protocol, HTTP, begins the process by

delivering the HTML formatted web page data to the Transport layer.
 There the application data is broken into TCP segments. Each TCP
segment is given a label, called a header, containing information
about which process running on the destination computer should
receive the message. It also contains the information to enable the
destination process to reassemble the data back to its original
format.
 The Transport layer encapsulates the web page HTML data within the
segment and sends it to the Internet layer, where the IP protocol is
implemented.
 Here the entire TCP segment is encapsulated within an IP packet, which
adds another label, called the IP header. The IP header contains source and
destination host IP addresses, as well as information necessary to deliver
the packet to its corresponding destination process.

 Next, the IP packet is sent to the Network Access layer Ethernet protocol
where it is encapsulated within a frame header and trailer. Each frame
header contains a source and destination physical address. The physical
address uniquely identifies the devices on the local network. The trailer
contains error checking information. Finally the bits are encoded onto the
Ethernet media by the server NIC.
 This process is reversed at the receiving host. The data is decapsulated as it
moves up the stack toward the end user application.
 Compare OSI and TCP/IP model
Addressing and Naming Schemes

 How labels in encapsulation headers are used to

manage communication in data networks
 The OSI model describes the processes of encoding, formatting,
segmenting, and encapsulating data for transmission over the
network. A data stream that is sent from a source to a destination
can be divided into pieces and interleaved with messages traveling
from other hosts to other destinations. Billions of these pieces of
information are traveling over a network at any given time. It is
critical for each piece of data to contain enough identifying
information to get it to the correct destination.

 There are various types of addresses that must be included to

successfully deliver the data from a source application running on
one host to the correct destination application running on another.
Using the OSI model as a guide, we can see the different addresses
and identifiers that are necessary at each layer.
Addressing and Naming Schemes

 Ethernet MAC Addresses, IP Addresses, and TCP/UDP

Port numbers
Addressing and Naming Schemes
 How information in the encapsulation header is used
to identify the source and destination processes for
data communication
Addressing and Naming Schemes

 How labels in encapsulation headers are used to

manage communication in data networks
Addressing and Naming Schemes
 How information in the encapsulation header is used
to identify the source and destination processes for
data communication
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.