The document summarizes the development of the embryo between 4-8 weeks. During this period, the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to major organs and tissues. The ectoderm forms the neural tube and neural crest derivatives. The mesoderm forms somites which differentiate into muscles, bones and dermis. It also forms blood islands and the intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. Endodermal folding establishes the gut tube and its derivatives include the lungs, thyroid and digestive organs. By the end of this period, the external body form is recognizable.
The document summarizes the development of the embryo between 4-8 weeks. During this period, the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to major organs and tissues. The ectoderm forms the neural tube and neural crest derivatives. The mesoderm forms somites which differentiate into muscles, bones and dermis. It also forms blood islands and the intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. Endodermal folding establishes the gut tube and its derivatives include the lungs, thyroid and digestive organs. By the end of this period, the external body form is recognizable.
The document summarizes the development of the embryo between 4-8 weeks. During this period, the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to major organs and tissues. The ectoderm forms the neural tube and neural crest derivatives. The mesoderm forms somites which differentiate into muscles, bones and dermis. It also forms blood islands and the intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. Endodermal folding establishes the gut tube and its derivatives include the lungs, thyroid and digestive organs. By the end of this period, the external body form is recognizable.
The document summarizes the development of the embryo between 4-8 weeks. During this period, the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) give rise to major organs and tissues. The ectoderm forms the neural tube and neural crest derivatives. The mesoderm forms somites which differentiate into muscles, bones and dermis. It also forms blood islands and the intermediate mesoderm develops into kidneys and gonads. Endodermal folding establishes the gut tube and its derivatives include the lungs, thyroid and digestive organs. By the end of this period, the external body form is recognizable.
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4th TO 8TH WEEK
“THE EMBRYONIC PERIOD”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1) Derivatives of the ectodermal germ layer a) Neurulation – definition, stages, results b) Neural crest – formation, derivatives c) Other derivatives
2) Derivatives of the mesodermal germ layer
a) Paraxial mesoderm – formation, subdivisions and derivatives of somites b) Intermediate mesoderm – formation, derivatives c) Lateral plate mesoderm – formation, subdivisions, derivatives d) Formation of blood and blood vessels LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3) Derivatives of the endodermal germ layer a) Folding – head, tail and lateral folding b) Formation of foregut, midgut and hindgut c) Other derivatives 4) External appearance during the 2nd month INTRODUCTION • Also called embryonic period or period of organogenesis • Each of the three germ layers gives rise to a number of specific tissues and organs • Main organ systems are established by the end of this period • Major features of the external body form recognizable by the end of this period • Mesodermal structures called somites are formed between the 20th and 30th day, therefore this period is called the somite period DERIVATIVES OF ECTODERM NEURULATION • The notochord and the prechordal mesoderm induce the overlying ectoderm to form the neural plate • The neural plate is converted to a neural groove with raised lateral margins called neural folds • The tips of the neural folds are lined by a population of cells called the neural crest NEURULATION NEURAL CREST NEURULATION • The neural groove extends in the midline from Hensen’s node to the buccopharyngeal membrane • The neural folds fuse dorsally, to form the neural tube • The cephalic opening of the tube is called the anterior neuropore, the caudal opening, the posterior neuropore • These close respectively on the 25th and 28th day Clinical aspects • Anencephaly • Spina bifida NEURULATION NEURULATION • The process of conversion of the neural plate to the neural tube is called neurulation • The enlarged cephalic portion of the tube forms the brain and the narrow caudal portion forms the spinal cord • As neurulation occurs the neural crest cells migrate to numerous locations in the body, where the cells differentiate to form a wide range of structures and cell type DERIVATIVES OF NEURAL CREST • Connective tissue and bones of the face and the skull • Cranial nerve ganglia • C cells of the thyroid gland • Conotruncal septum in the heart • Odontoblasts • Dermis in the face and neck • Dorsal root ganglia • Sympathetic ganglia • Parasympathetic ganglia of the G.I.T. • Adrenal medulla • Schwann cells • Leptomeninges • Melanocytes OTHER DERIVATIVES • Bilateral ectodermal thickenings called placodes appear in the cranial region • The otic placode and the lens placode are precursors of structures in the inner ear and the lens respectively • Other derivatives include the peripheral nervous system, epidermis and skin appendages, the pituitary gland and enamel of the teeth PLACODES DERIVATIVES OF MESODERM SUBDIVISIONS OF THE MESODERMAL GERM LAYER • Initially cells of this layer form a thin sheet of loosely woven tissue on each side of the midline • By the 17th day cells close to the midline proliferate to form a thickened plate of tissue known as paraxial mesoderm • More laterally the mesoderm remains thin and is called the lateral plate mesoderm • Intermediate mesoderm connects paraxial mesoderm and lateral plate mesoderm SUBDIVISIONS OF THE MESODERMAL GERM LAYER PARAXIAL MESODERM • Paraxial mesoderm is organized into segments called somitomeres • First appear in the cephalic region, proceeds in a cephalocaudal direction
• In the head region these form in association
with segmentation of the neural plate, neuromeres, and contribute to the mesenchyme of the head SOMITES • From the occipital region caudally, somitomeres further organize into somites, which appear in a craniocaudal sequence • There are 42 to 44 somites, the first appearing around the 20th day and the last appearing around the 30th day • The age of the embryo is expressed in this period in number of somites • The first occipital and the last five to seven coccygeal somites disappear FORMATION OF SOMITES SOMITES • Cells of the ventromedial portion of the somite are called the sclerotome, which migrate to surround the notochord • The sclerotomes form the vertebral column and the ribs • Cells of the dorsolateral portion migrate to form the musculature of the limbs and body wall SOMITES • Dorsomedial cells migrate beneath the remaining dorsal epithelium, the dermatome, to form the myotome • Myotomes contribute to the muscles of the back, the dermatomes forming the dermis and subcutaneous tissue, together called dermomyotomes • Each dermatome and myotome has a segmental nerve supply which is retained no matter where the cells migrate INTERMEDIATE MESODERM • Intermediate mesoderm temporarily connects paraxial mesoderm with the lateral plate • Differentiates into urogenital structures, forming the excretory units of the urinary system and the gonads • In the cervical and upper thoracic regions forms segmental cell clusters, future nephrotomes • More caudally forms an unsegmented mass of tissue, the nephrogenic cord • After appearance of the intraembryonic coelom, the intermediate mesoderm, projects into its dorsal wall INTERMEDIATE MESODERM Intermediate mesoderm LATERAL PLATE MESODERM • Spaces appear and coalesce in the lateral plate mesoderm dividing it into two layers • The layer continuous with mesoderm covering the amnion is called the somatic or parietal mesoderm layer • The layer continuous with mesoderm covering the yolk sac is called the splanchnic or visceral mesoderm layer • The cavity, the intraembryonic cavity, is continuous with the extraembryonic cavity on each side of the embryo LATERAL PLATE MESODERM LATERAL PLATE MESODERM • The parietal mesoderm together with the overlying ectoderm will form the lateral and ventral body wall • The visceral mesoderm and embryonic endoderm will form the wall of the gut • The parietal and visceral mesoderm also form the parietal and visceral layers of the mesothelial membranes lining the pericardial, pleural and peritoneal cavities BLOOD AND BLOOD VESSELS • Blood vessels form in two ways, vasculogenesis and angiogenesis • In vasculogenesis vessels arise from blood islands • In angiogenesis new vessels sprout from existing ones • Blood islands first appear in the mesoderm surrounding the yolk sac, slightly later in the lateral plate mesoderm and other region VASCULOGENESIS AND ANGIOGENESIS VASCULOGENESIS • The blood islands arise from mesodermal cells that form haemangioblasts, a common precursor for vessel and blood cell formation • Haemangioblasts in the centre of the blood islands form haemopoietic stem cells and the peripheral cells angioblasts, which eventually form endothelial cells STEM CELLS • Once the primary vascular bed is established by vasculogenesis, additional vessels are formed by angiogenesis • Haemopoietic stem cells are later formed from the mesoderm surrounding the aorta • These cells colonize the liver, the major haemopoietic organ in the foetus • Later stem cells from the liver colonize the bone marrow, the definitive blood forming region • Mediated mainly by fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) EMBRYONIC FOLDING FOLDING • The gastrointestinal tract is the main organ system derived from the endodermal germ layer • With growth of the brain vesicles, the embryonic disc begins to bulge into the amniotic cavity and fold cephalocaudally • Folding is most pronounced in the cranial and caudal regions, forming head and tail folds HEAD AND TAIL FOLDS 1 – septum transversum
2 – heart tube and pericardial cavity
3 – buccopharyngeal membrane
4 – cloacal membrane
5 – connecting stalk
3 BEFORE 2 AND AFTER 1 FOLDING 5
4 RESULTS OF FOLDING • As a result of cephalocaudal folding, part of the yolk sac, is incorporated into the body of the embryo proper • The portion incorporated anteriorly is called the foregut, posteriorly, the hindgut • The portion between the foregut and hindgut is called the midgut, which communicates with rest of the yolk sac, through the vitelline duct LATERAL FOLDING • As a result of rapid growth of the somites, lateral folding of the embryonic disc occurs • Thus the embryo obtains a round appearance, the ventral body wall is established and the intraembryonic body cavity is formed • Part of the allantois is incorporated into the body of the embryo forming the cloaca, the distal portion remaining in the connecting stalk • In the 4th week the buccopharyngeal membrane ruptures, establishing an open connection between the amniotic cavity and the primitive gut • The cloacal membrane breaks down in the 7th week to create the opening of the anus LATERAL FOLDING DERIVATIVES OF THE ENDODERMAL GERM LAYER • The endodermal germ layer initially forms the epithelial lining of the primitive gut and the intraembryonic portions of the allantois and vitelline duct • Further development gives rise to, a) epithelial lining of the respiratory tract, b) the parenchyma of the thyroid, parathyroid, liver and pancreas, c) reticular stroma of the tonsis and thymus, d) epithelial lining of urinary bladder and urethra, e) epithelial lining of the tympanic cavity and auditory tube DERIVATIVES OF THE ENDODERMAL GERM LAYER EXTERNAL APPEARANCE DURING 2ND MONTH • At the end of the 4th week the main external features are the somites and pharyngeal arches • During the 2nd month, the external appearance is changed due to the formation of limbs, face, ears, eyes and nose • Increase in head size also occurs • After the 4th week, the age of the embryo is indicated as the crown-rump (CR) length 6th week of development 7th week of development CLINICAL CORRELATES • The period of organogenesis is the period when most gross structural birth defects are induced by teratogens
• 3rd and 4th weeks are
most vulnerable UNIVERSITY EXAM QUESTIONS Short essays: (5 marks) 1) Somite 2) Derivatives of neural crest cells
Short answers: (3 marks)
1) Somite 2) Derivatives of neural crest cells 3) Name any 4 derivatives of ectoderm 4) Name any 4 derivatives of mesoderm 5) Name any four derivatives of endoderm ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• Langman’s Medical Embryology –
9th edition • Essentials of Human Embryology – A. K. Datta, 4th edition • Human Embryology – William J. Larsen, 3rd edition
