Chapter 2:

Optical Fiber Transmission

John Xiupu Zhang

Fiber Structure
Refractive Index Profile
Refractive Index Profiles
Light Transmission in Ray
How does Light travel in a fiber
Refraction
Snell’s Law
Internal Reflection
Propagation in a multi-mode fiber
Propagation in a single-mode fiber
Single-Mode or Multimode Fiber
Acceptance Angle
Acceptance Angle
Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture
Numerical Aperture
 How do Fibers Transmit Light?

if 1 < critical angle cr , ray refracted and reflected

1 Light is
n1 eventually
n2 lost

if 1 > critical angle cr , ray totally reflected

n2 Light is
1
n1 transmitted

Copyright VPIphotonics. All rights reserved 19

 Wave Representation of Modes

Solve Maxwell’s equations

A finite number of guided modes
An infinite number of radiation (leaky) modes

TE2 TE1 TE0

A leaky mode Guided modes

Copyright VPIphotonics. All rights reserved 20
Electromagnetic Analysis
Suppose a fiber: linear, isotropic dielectric material,
no current, and free charge
Maxwell equations:
 
  E 2
  H 2

 E   2
2
 H   2
2

t t
   

E r ,     E r , t exp jt dt Different from textbook


k0    2

Wave number
c

c 1  0 0 r r ,   =1
Refractive index and fiber loss


 r ,  c 
2
  2 
 n r ,  

 r ,     nr ,    j    n
 2 

 2  2 
 E  n r ,  k0 E  0
2 in frequency domain

2 H  n2  r ,   k02 H  0
 x
 • Fiber: weakly guiding
z Fiber axis • Ez and Hz very small,
r
but not zero
y
Fiber core
Only Ez & Hz
E x , E y , Ez H x , H y , Hz Independent

Once Ez given
Ex or Ey deduced
Ex & Ey deduced

Ez  0 TE mode Hz  0 TM mode

Ez  0 & H z  0 Hybrid mode (EH or HE mode)

By cylindrical coordinate:

 E z 1 E z 1  E z  E z
2 2 2

  2   n k0 E z  0
2 2

r 2
r r r  2
z 2

By separation of variables:

Ez  r, , z, t   F1  r  F2   F3  z  F4 t 

sinusoidal in time, then n1

F4 t   exp jt  n2
a r
d 2 F3 F3  exp j z 
2
  2
F3  0
dz
F3  exp j z 

F3 F4  exp jt  jz 

2
d F2
 m 2
F2  0
d 2

F2  exp jm 
m: integer, F2 periodic
in 2
 2 F1 1 F1  2 m 2
 k  k0 n
   k    2  F1  0
2

r 2
r r  r  Bessel Equation

 AJ m  pr   AYm  pr  ra core

F1 r   
CK m qr   C I m qr  ra cladding

p  n1 k0   2 q 2   2  n2 k0
2 2 2 2 2

Modes meet k02 n22    k02 n12 Guided modes

  k02 n12 or   k02 n22 Radiation modes
 Ym 0  
Boundary conditions:
1. F1 must be finite at r=0, A  0
2). F1=0 at r=  C  0 I m    

 AJ m  pr  exp  jm  exp  jt  j  z 

 ra
Ez  
 BK m  qr  exp  jm  exp  jt  j  z 
 ra

Similarly
 CJ m  pr exp jm exp jt  j z  ra
Hz  
 DK m qr exp jm exp jt  j z  ra
Boundary condition at r=a:

E z core  E z cladding
E core  E cladding

H z core  H z cladding
H core  H cladding
4 homogeneous equations-->A, B, C, D

 J   pa  K  qa    J   pa  n 2 K  qa  
 m  m  m  22 m 
 pJ m  pa  qK m qa   pJ m  pa  n1 qK m qa 
m  1 1  1 n2 1 

2 2

 2  2  2  2  2 2  Propagation constants

a p q  p n1 q  
For given  , a, n1 , & n2 

For each m, many   mn n=1, 2, …

Each  mn corresponds to a mode

1) m=0: Ez=0, & Hz=0  0n TM and TE modes

2) m 0: Ez  0, H z  0  mn EH mn , HE mn
Hybrid modes
 Normalized Frequency V --- Modes
normalized frequency V

V  k0 a n
1
2

 n2  k0an1 2
2

n1

HE11

 TE01
k TM01

EH11

HE31
HE12
n2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
V
 
 n2
Normalized mode index: b
k0
n1  n2
b V   1.1428  0.996 / V 
2
Step-index SMF


 n2
b V   1.1428  0.996 / V 
2
k0
b
n1  n2


 n2
k0
b
n1  n2
 Mode Degeneracy
When V<2.4, single mode
 AJ 0  pr exp jz  ra
Ez  
CK 0 qr exp jz  ra
 J 0  pr 
 E0 J  pa  exp j z  core
E x or E y   0
K qr 
 E0 0 exp j z  cladding
 K 0 qa 

SM fiber supports: two orthogonally polarized modes

Ez  0, Ex  0, Ey  0 HE11 Horizontally polarized

Ez  0, Ex  0, Ey  0 HE11 Vertically polarized

Linearly Polarized Modes (LP Modes)
For weakly guided fiber   1

12  22  2 & Ez  0 H z  0

but Ez & Hz very small
Vertical mode Horizontal mode
E x or E y very large HE11:
• If E x =0, most energy of the mode in Ey (Ey,Hx y-polarized)
• If E y =0, most energy of the mode in E x (Ex,Hy x-polarized)
Linearly polarized modes LP modes

LP01 HE11  2
Approximation!
LP11 TE01 , TM 01 , HE 21 x 2
 Mode Field Distribution

LP01 (lowest HE11

order)

TE01

LP11 (first set of

TM01
higher order
modes)

HE21
Mode Energy Distribution
n2
n1
n2

LP m=0 m=1 m=2 m=3 m=4

Step Index fiber
 Mode Field Diameter
J 0  pr   r2 
~ exp  2 
J 0  pa   w0 
Gaussian distribution:

Mode-field diameter (MFD):

MFD  2w0
Aeff  w0
2
Spot size
area:
Aeff  0.94w0
2

1300-1600 nm: single-mode,

-1
cutoff wavelength: 1260 nm &
n1=1.45, =3x10-3 ; V<2.4,

MDF  8  9m
Cut-off wavelength
 Confinement Factor
By Bessel function
  75%

Not single mode

core cladding

Confinement a
2
factor:
Pcore 0  E x rdr  2a 2 
   1  exp  2  All fibers: 2<V<2.4
Ptotal 2
 E x rdr  w0 
0
Pulse propagation in free space
Or Pulse propagation in fiber with no dispersion

Pulse propagation in dispersive fiber

Optical field distribution in
the presence of dispersion
Fiber Dispersion

Multi-modes

Single mode
Modal Dispersion (multi-modes)
Intermodal Dispersion
Modal Dispersion
Estimating Modal Dispersion
Numerical Aperture
Fiber Bandwidth
Intramodal Dispersion: GVD (one mode only)
Chromatic Dispersion (GVD)
Phase velocity
Phase velocity
Wave packets and Group velocity
Group velocity
Material dispersion
Material dispersion
 1 dng
Material dispersion: DM 
c d
Positive DM

Negative DM

dng
0
d
For silica only
Zero-dispersion wavelength 0

=1276 nm
GVD: Material Dispersion
Waveguide dispersion
Waveguide Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion definition

Relationship of wavelength and frequency intervals:

2c 2c
    
  2

dT d  L 1 d g
T        DL D2 
d d   vg  L d

d  1  2 c
D     2 2 Dispersion parameter with unit:
d   vg 
  ps km  nm 
The other representation of GVD
  nk0  n 
 c n mode (group) index

v g  c n

2 c d  1  2  dn d 2n 
D2   2     2 2  2
 d  v g    d d 

 / k0  n2 n  n2
b  n  n2  bn1  n2 
n1  n2 n1  n2
 n2 1  bV  
d
d
0  n 1  b V   
D     DM  DW

Material dispersion
Waveguide dispersion
2 dn 1 dn
DM  2 
 d c d

small


2 n Vd 2
Vb  dn d Vb  
DW  2   
   dV 2 d  dV 

 Standard single-mode fiber (SMF)
S  04  ps
D      3 
40
4    nm  km
Material
1.3 Dm SiO2SfiberDispersion slope at 0
20
Dtot Standard single-mode fiber
D (ps/nm/km)

0 Total
Dw Standard single-mode fiber

-20
Waveguide
Zero-dispersion
-40 ps km  nm  n(r)
D =15-18 near 1.55 m
-60
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Wavelength (m)
r
Step-index
 Dispersion flattened fiber

40

1.55 Dm SiO2
20 \
D (ps/nm/km)

\
Dtot DFF

0
Dw DSF

-20

n(r)
-40
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
wavelength (m)

r
W-index
Total Chromatic Dispersion
 Polarization issues

•Polarization
•Polarization-mode dispersion (PMD)
•Polarization-dependent loss (PDL)
Birefringence
 Polarization: Jones-Formalism

Complex transverse electric field vector E(t):

E(t )  s E(t ) y
Re{E(t)}
E (t ): Complex electric field amplitude
eyRe{syE(t)}
: Unit Jones-vector (ket-vector)
exRe{sxE(t)}
s  s x  
sy : Corresponding complex conjugate
vector (bra-vector)
is normalized, such that (bra-ket notation):
s s  sxsx  sy sy  1
Notation adopted from:
J.P. Gordon and H. Kogelnik,
„PMD Fundamentals: Polarization mode dispersion in optical fibers,“
Proc. of the National Academy of Sciences USA, vol. 97, no. 9, pp. 4541-4550
Copyright VPIphotonics. All rights reserved 80
Differential Group Delay (DGD) –short fiber
 Differential Group Delay (DGD)

Consider a wave that is linearly polarized at an azimuth of

  0 with respect to the fiber birefringent axes.
Signal power propagates along both fiber axes.
y 
Different propagation constants
 = s-f

x
Different group delays
 = s-f
DGD of a short fiber:

Linear length dependence of DGD  in short fibers,

where uniform birefringence can be assumed.
Copyright VPIphotonics. All rights reserved 82
Birefringence: Long Fiber
Origins of Birefringence
PMD Impact
Attenuation in Fiber
 What causes fiber loss?

• Absorption

• Scattering

• Bending

Copyright VPIsystems. All rights reserved. 92

 Design Constraints

•Fiber loss

•Pulse spreading

Copyright VPIphotonics. All rights reserved 93

Material absorption loss
Intrinsic absorption
Extrinsic absorption (OH ions)
Types of Scattering loss

(not given this chapter)

 Rayleigh Scattering
1. Photons interact with non-propagating density
fluctuations in fiber
2. Microscopic defects in the amorphous structure of
glass (d << 

radiation by
irregular atoms
or molecules
much smaller
than the
wavelength of
the light

Elastic !!!
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering
Total Fiber Attenuation
Bending loss in fiber
Macro-bending—Mode field
Micro-bending—Single-mode fiber

cladding
core
Fiber Attenuation
Attenuation unit

1  P 0 

L  P L 
ln  (1/km or 1/m)

P 0  P 0 
 expL 10 log 10    10 log 10 expL  10L log 10 e
P  L  P  L 

 P 0 
 dB / km  
10
log 10  
L  P  L 

  dB / km  10 log10 e   1 / km

 4.343   1 / km
 A note on dB and dBm
• dB
 P1 
– optical signals: 10 log  
 P2 
V  I  VI 
– electrical signals: 20 log  1   20 log  1   10 log  1 1 
 V2   I2   V2 I 2 

– Popt  I el  Pel  electrical dB = 2 x optical dB

• dBm

 P  mW  
– power level in dBm: 10log10 
 1(mW ) 
 
Fiber Manufacture
Fiber Preform
Preform manufacture
Silica deposition
Doping preform
IVD Preform Manufacture
Preform Manufacture Picture
Preform Drawing Machine
Pulse Propagation (single mode)

E  x, y, z, t   E xy  x, y  E (z, t )
Transverse field (~Gaussian) longitudinal component

 2 3
    n     0  1     
2 3

c 2 6
Phase velocity GVD GVD slope
Group velocity
 d 1
1  
d   vg0

d 2 2
2   D2
d  
2
2c
0

d 3 2  2 S  2 D  S : dispersion slope
3  
 
d 3  0  2 c  2
Pulse Propagation
Nonlinear Schrodinger Equation (NLSE)
Magnitude (intensity)
RMS width


Broadening factor:
0
Chirped Gaussian pulse
 1  jC  t  2  T0 :half width at 1/e magnitude
A0, t   A0 exp    
 2  T0   C: chirp parameter


TFWHM  2 ln 2T0

 
2T0
2  2 
A0,    A0 exp  
1  jC 
21  jC  Freq. domain
2
 T0 

 0 
1  C  2
Spectral half width at 1/e amplitude:
T0
 amplitude

If C=0 or un-chirped pulse, 0T0  1 Transform-limited pulses

z

amplitude
RMS width for high-order dispersion

z
 z

Optical source
Linear Fiber: Transfer Function

A  z,     2 3 
H F  z,     exp  Z  j   Z  j   Z 
2 3

A  0,    2 2 6 
2
Protection of fiber
Fiber Cables
Fiber Connectors (External Package)

Fiber channel (FC)

Square connector (SC)

Straight tip (ST)

ferule
Fiber Connectors

E2000

Lucent connector (LC)

Physical Contact (PC)

Return loss= Reflected power/Injection power

<-40 dB
Ultra Physical Contact (UPC)

Return loss <-50 dB

Angled physical contact (APC)

8O

Return loss<-60 dB
Fiber Connector Types

• FC/PC
• FC/APC
• SC/PC
• SC/APC
• LT/PC
• LT/APC
• ………..
 Brand new fibers
• Multicore fibers

• Few mode fibers