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• In the plastic region, the material behaviour is expressed

  K
by the flow curve: n
Where K is strength coefficient and n is strain-hardening
(or work-hardening) exponent and at UTS, ε = n
 Average Flow Stress
• Average (mean) flow stress is not on the basis of
instantaneous flow stress, but on an average value over
the stress – strain curve from the beginning of strain to
the final (maximum) value that occurs during
deformation.
K n

Average flow stress  o  

f

1 n
Here εf is the maximum strain value during deformation.
 Strain Hardening
• When metal is formed in cold state, there is no recrystalization of
grains and thus recovery from grain distortion or fragmentation does
not take place.

• As grain deformation proceeds, greater resistance to this action results

in increased hardness and strength i.e. strain hardening.
 GATE-1995
A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point and then
unloaded. Its yield strength

(a) Decreases

(b) Increases

(c) Remains same

(d) Become equal to UTS

 Recrystallisation Temperature (Rx temp.)
• “The minimum temperature at which the completed
recrystallisation of a cold worked metal occurs within a
specified period of approximately one hour”.
• Rx temp. decreases strength and increases ductility.
• If working above Rx temp., hot-working process whereas
working below are cold-working process.
• It involves replacement of cold-worked structure by a new
set of strain-free, approximately equi-axed grains to
replace all the deformed crystals. Contd.
• Rx temp. depends on the amount of cold work a material
has already received. The higher the cold work, the lower
would be the Rx temp.
• Rx temp. varies between 1/3 to ½ melting paint.
• For Pure metal Rx temp. = 0.3 x Melting temp. (Kelvin).
• For Alloy Rx temp. = 0.5 x Melting temp. (Kelvin).
• Rx temp. of lead and Tin is below room temp.
• Rx temp. of Cadmium and Zinc is room temp.
• Rx temp. of Iron is 450oC and for steels around 1000°C
• Finer is the initial grain size; lower will be the Rx temp
 Cold working
• Working below recrystalization temp.
 Advantages of Cold Working
1. Better accuracy, closer tolerances

2. Better surface finish

3. Strain hardening increases strength and hardness

4. Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable

directional properties in product

5. No heating of work required (less total energy)

 Disadvantages of Cold
1.
Working
Equipment of higher forces and power required

2. Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and dirt

3. Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that

can be done

4. In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further

deformation

5. Some metals are simply not ductile enough to be cold worked.

 Hot Working
• Working above recrystalization temp.
 Advantages of Hot Working
1. The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
2. The grain structure of the metal is refined.
3. The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibers and
distributed throughout the metal.
4. The mechanical properties such as toughness, percentage
elongation, percentage reduction in area, and resistance to shock
and vibration are improved due to the refinement of grains.
 Disadvantages of Hot
Working
1. It requires expensive tools.
2. It produces poor surface finish, due to the rapid
oxidation and scale formation on the metal surface.
3. Due to the poor surface finish, close tolerance
cannot be maintained.
•
Warm Forming
Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to hot and
cold forming is known as warm forming.
• Compared to cold forming, it reduces loads, increase material
ductility.
• Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and
decarburization, better dimensional precision and smoother
surfaces.
 GATE-2003
Cold working of steel is defined as working
(a) At its recrystallisation temperature
(b) Above its recrystallisation temperature
(c) Below its recrystallisation temperature
(d) At two thirds of the melting temperature of the
metal
 GATE-2002, ISRO-2012
Hot rolling of mild steel is carried out
(a) At recrystallisation temperature
(b) Between 100°C to 150°C
(c) Below recrystallisation temperature
(d) Above recrystallisation temperature
 IES – 2006
Which one of the following is the process to refine the
grains of metal after it has been distorted by hammering
or cold working?
(a) Annealing (b)Softening
(c) Re-crystallizing (d) Normalizing
 IES – 2004
Consider the following statements:
In comparison to hot working, in cold working,
1. Higher forces are required
2. No heating is required
3. Less ductility is required
4. Better surface finish is obtained
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
 ISRO-2009
In the metal forming process, the stresses encountered are
(a) Greater than yield strength but less than ultimate strength
(b) Less than yield strength of the material
(c) Greater than the ultimate strength of the material
(d) Less than the elastic limit
 Rolling

• Definition: The process of plastically deforming metal by

passing it between rolls.
• Most widely used, high production and close tolerance.
• Friction between the rolls and the metal surface produces
high compressive stress.
• Hot-working (unless mentioned cold rolling.)
• Metal will undergo bi-axial compression and shear
because of rolls.
 GATE-2013
In a rolling process, the state of stress of the material undergoing
deformation is

(a) pure compression

(b) pure shear

(c) compression and shear

(d) tension and shear

 IAS – 2001
Consider the following characteristics of rolling process:
1. Shows work hardening effect
2. Surface finish is not good
3. Heavy reduction in areas can be obtained
Which of these characteristics are associated with hot
rolling?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
 IAS – 2003
In one setting of rolls in a 3-high rolling mill, one gets

(a) One reduction in thickness

(b) Two reductions in thickness

(c) Three reductions in thickness

(d) Two or three reductions in thickness depending

upon the setting
 Camber

• Camber can be used to correct the roll deflection (at only one
value of the roll force).
 IES – 1993
In order to get uniform thickness of the plate by rolling
process, one provides

(a) Camber on the rolls

(b) Offset on the rolls

(c) Hardening of the rolls

(d) Antifriction bearings

Formula in Rolling
Geometry of Rolling Process
 Draft
• Total reduction or “draft” taken in rolling.

h = h0 - hf = 2 (R - R cos ) = D (1 - cos )
Angle of bite: α: it is the angle made by center of rollers
with the deformation zone.
 GATE-2007
The thickness of a metallic sheet is reduced from an
initial value of 16 mm to a final value of 10 mm in one
single pass rolling with a pair of cylindrical rollers each of
diameter of 400 mm. The bite angle in degree will be

(a) 5.936 (b) 7.936

(c) 8.936 (d) 9.936

GATE – 2012 Same Q in GATE – 2012 (PI)
In a single pass rolling process using 410 mm
diameter steel rollers, a strip of width 140 mm
and thickness 8 mm undergoes 10% reduction of
thickness. The angle of bite in radians is
(a) 0.006 (b) 0.031
(c) 0.062 (d) 0.600
 Roll strip contact length
• Roll strip contact length
L = Rα

[ α must be in radian]
 GATE-2004
In a rolling process, sheet of 25 mm thickness is rolled to
20 mm thickness. Roll is of diameter 600 mm and it
rotates at 100 rpm. The roll strip contact length will be

(a) 5 mm (b) 39 mm

(c) 78 mm (d) 120 mm

For Unaided entry

  tan 
 Maximum Draft Possible

 h max 2
= R
 GATE 2011
The maximum possible draft in cold rolling of sheet
increases with the

(a) increase in coefficient of friction

(b) decrease in coefficient of friction

(c) decrease in roll radius

(d) increase in roll velocity

 GATE 2014
In a rolling process, the maximum possible draft, defined
as the difference between the initial and the final
thickness of the metal sheet, mainly depends on which
pair of the following parameters?
P: Strain
Q: Strength of the work material
R: Roll diameter
S: Roll velocity
T: Coefficient of friction between roll and work
(a) Q, S (b) R, T
(c) S, T (d) P, R
 GATE-2015
In a rolling operation using rolls of diameter 500 mm ,
if a 25 mm thick plate cannot be reduced to less than
20 mm in one pass, the coefficient of friction between
the roll and the plate is _______
 Minimum Possible Thickness h f min 

ho  h f min   R 2
 GATE-2006
A 4 mm thick sheet is rolled with 300 mm diameter rolls
to reduce thickness without any change in its width. The
friction coefficient at the work-roll interface is 0.1. The
minimum possible thickness of the sheet that can be
produced in a single pass is

(a) 1.0 mm (b) 1.5 mm

(c) 2.5 mm (d) 3.7 mm

Number of pass needed

hrequired
n
hmax
 GATE – 2011 (PI)
The thickness of a plate is reduced from 30 mm to 10
mm by successive cold rolling passes using identical rolls
of diameter 600 mm. Assume that there is no change in
width. If the coefficient of friction between the rolls and
the work piece is 0.1, the minimum number of passes
required is

(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7

 Neutral Point and Neutral Plane
The point where roll velocity equals
work velocity is known as the no-slip V0 = input velocity
point or the neutral point.
Vf = final or output velocity
R = roll radius
ho = initial thickness
hf =output or final
thickness
α = angle of bite
N-N = neutral point or no-
Vr  Vo slip point
Backward slip  100% To the left of the Neutral Point:
Vr
Velocity of the strip < Velocity of the roll
V f  Vr
Forward slip  100% To the right of the Neutral Point:
Vr Velocity of the strip > Velocity of the roll
 GATE-1990 (PI)
While rolling a strip the peripheral velocity of the roll is ….A…..than
the entry velocity of the strip and is ……B …..the exit velocity of the
strip.

(a) less than/greater less

(b) Greater than/less than

 GATE -2008(PI)
In a rolling process, thickness of a strip is reduced from 4
mm to 3 mm using 300 mm diameter rolls rotating at 100
rpm. The velocity of the strip in (m/s) at the neutral
point is

(a) 1.57 (b) 3.14 (c) 47.10 (d) 94.20

 Continuity Equation
• Generally rolling increases
the work width from an
initial value of bo to a final
one of bf and this is called
spreading.
• The inlet and outlet volume
rates of material flow must
be the same, that is,
hobovo = hfbfvf
where vo and vf are the
entering and exiting
velocities of the work.
 GATE-2014
A mild steel plate has to be rolled in one pass such
that the final plate thickness is 2/3rd of the initial
thickness, with the entrance speed of 10 m/min and
roll diameter of 500 mm. If the plate widens by 2%
during rolling, the exit velocity (in m/min) is
……………
Force, Torque and Power

Will be
discussed
in class
Projected length  Lp   R sin   Rh , mm
Projected Area  Ap   L p  b , mm 2
RollSeparating Force ( F )   o  L p  b , N
[ o in N / mm 2 i.e. MPa ]
Arm length  a in mm   0.5L p for hot rolling
 0.45 Lp for cold rolling
a
Torque per roller T   F  , Nm
1000
Total power for two roller  P   2T  , inW
 GATE-2008
In a single pass rolling operation, a 20 mm thick plate
with plate width of 100 mm, is reduced to 18 mm. The
roller radius is 250 mm and rotational speed is 10 rpm.
The average flow stress for the plate material is 300 MPa.
The power required for the rolling operation in kW is
closest to
(a) 15.2
(b) 18.2
(c) 30.4
(d) 45.6
 Extrusion
• The extrusion process is like squeezing toothpaste out of a
tube.
• Metal is compressed and forced to flow through a suitably
shaped die to form a product with reduced but constant
cross section.

• Metal will undergo tri-axial compression.

• Hot extrusion is commonly employed.

• Lead, copper, aluminum, magnesium, and alloys of these

metals are commonly extruded.
• Steels, stainless steels, and nickel-based alloys are difficult
to extrude. (high yield strengths, welding with wall). Use
phosphate-based and molten glass lubricants .
 Extrusion Ratio
• Ratio of the cross-sectional area of the billet to the cross-
sectional area of the product.

• about 40: 1 for hot extrusion of steel

• 400: 1 for aluminium

 DRDO-2008
If the extrusion ratio is 20, the percentage reduction in
the cross-sectional area of the billet after the extrusion
will be

(a) 98% (b) 95% (c) 20% (d) 5%

 Advantages of Extrusion
• Any cross-sectional shape can be extruded from
the nonferrous metals.
• Many shapes (than rolling)
• Huge reduction in cross section.
• Conversion from one product to another
requires only a single die change
• Good dimensional precision.
 Limitation of Extrusion
• Cross section must be uniform for the entire length of the
product.
 Application
• Working of poorly plastic and non ferrous metals and
alloys.

• Manufacture of sections and pipes of complex

configuration.

• Medium and small batch production.

• Manufacture of parts of high dimensional accuracy.

 Hot Extrusion Process
• The temperature range for hot extrusion of aluminum is
430-480°C

• Used to produce curtain rods made of aluminum.

• Design of die is a problem.

• Either direct or indirect method used.

 IES – 2009
What is the major problem in hot extrusion?
(a) Design of punch (b) Design of die
(c) Wear and tear of die (d) Wear of punch
 Direct Extrusion
• A solid ram drives the entire billet to and through a stationary die and must provide
additional power to overcome the frictional resistance between the surface of the
moving billet and the confining chamber.
 IES – 2000
Consider the following statements:
In forward extrusion process
1. The ram and the extruded product travel in the same direction.
2. The ram and the extruded product travel in the opposite
direction.
3. The speed of travel of the extruded product is same as that of
the ram.
4. The speed of travel of the extruded product is greater than that
of the ram.
Which of these Statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
 Indirect Extrusion
• A hollow ram drives the die back through a stationary,
confined billet.
• Since no relative motion, friction between the billet and
the chamber is eliminated.
 Indirect Extrusion
Contd…
• Required force is lower (25 to 30% less)

Limitations:
• lower rigidity of the hollow ram

• difficulty in supporting the extruded product at the exit.

 IES – 2008, GATE-1989(PI)
Which one of the following methods is used for the
manufacture of collapsible tooth-paste tubes?

(a) Impact extrusion (b) Direct extrusion

(c) Deep drawing (d) Piercing

 Hydrostatic Extrusion
• Another type of cold extrusion process.

• High-pressure fluid applies the force to the workpiece

through a die.

• It is forward extrusion, but the fluid pressure surrounding

the billet prevents upsetting.

• Billet-chamber friction is eliminated, and the pressurized

fluid acts as a lubricant between the billet and the die.
Hydrostatic Extrusion Contd….
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
Contd….

• The metal deformation is performed in a high-

compression environment. Crack formation is suppressed,
leading to a phenomenon known as pressure-induced
ductility.
• Relatively brittle materials like cast iron, stainless steel,
molybdenum, tungsten and various inter-metallic
compounds can be plastically deformed without fracture,
and materials with limited ductility become highly plastic.
 GATE-1990(PI)
Semi brittle materials can be extruded by

(a) Impact extrusion

(b) Closed cavity extrusion

(c) Hydrostatic extrusion

(d) Backward extrusion

 Wire Drawing
A cold working process to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameters
through a die.

At the start of wire drawing, the end of the rod or wire to be drawn is
pointed (by swaging etc.) so that it freely enters the die orifice and sticks
out behind the die.

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 Wire Drawing Contd….

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 Wire Drawing Contd….
• Wire getting continuously wound on the reel.

• For fine wire, the material may be passed through a number of dies,
receiving successive reductions in diameter, before being coiled.

• The wire is subjected to tension only. But when it is in contact with dies
then a combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses will be there
in that portion only.

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 IES – 2007
Which metal forming process is used for manufacture of long steel wire?

(a) Deep drawing

(b) Forging

(c) Drawing

(c) Extrusion

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 Extrusion Stress
Approximate method (Uniform deformation, no friction) “work –
formula”  Ao   do 
P
E    o ln 
A   2   o  ln     o  ln  R 
A0  f   df 
For real conditions

P  Ao   do 
E   K ln    2  K  ln  
A0 A
 f   df 
K = extrusion constant.

Power= Extrusion force * Velocity of ram

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 Force required in Wire or Tube
drawing
Approximate method (Uniform deformation, no friction) “work –
formula”.
 Ao   d 2f  do 
P  Af  o ln    2    o  ln  
A 4 d
 f   f 
Drawing Stress
P  Ao   do 
d    o ln    2   o  ln  
Af A
 f   df 
Power= Drawing force* Velocity of wire.
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 GATE-2003
A brass billet is to be extruded from its initial diameter
of 100 mm to a final diameter of 50 mm. The working
temperature of 700°C and the extrusion constant is 250 MPa.
The force required for extrusion is

(a) 5.44 MN (b) 2.72 MN

(c) 1.36 MN (d) 0.36 MN

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 GATE – 2009 (PI)
Using direct extrusion process, a round billet of 100 mm
length and 50 mm diameter is extruded. Considering an ideal
deformation process (no friction and no redundant work),
extrusion ratio 4, and average flow stress of material 300 MPa, the
pressure (in MPa) on the ram will be

(a) 416 (b) 624 (c) 700 (d) 832

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 GATE-2006
In a wire drawing operation, diameter of a steel wire is reduced
from 10 mm to 8 mm. The mean flow stress of the material is 400 MPa.
The ideal force required for drawing (ignoring friction and redundant
work) is

(a) 4.48 kN (b) 8.97 kN

(c) 20.11 kN (d) 31.41 kN

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 GATE -2008 (PI) Linked S-1
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is
drawn through a die at a speed of 0.5 m/s to reduce
the diameter by 20%. The yield stress of the material
is 800 MPa.

Neglecting friction and strain hardening, the

stress required for drawing (in MPa) is

(a) 178.5 (b) 357.0 (c) 1287.5

(d) 2575.0
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 GATE -2008 (PI) Linked S-2
A 10 mm diameter annealed steel wire is drawn through a die
at a speed of 0.5 m/s to reduce the diameter by 20%. The yield stress
of the material is 800 MPa.

The power required for the drawing process (in kW) is

(a) 8.97 (b) 14.0 (c) 17.95 (d) 28.0

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 GATE-2001, GATE -2007 (PI)
For rigid perfectly-plastic work material, negligible interface
friction and no redundant work, the theoretically maximum possible
reduction in the wire drawing operation is

(a) 0.36 (b) 0.63

(c) 1.00 (d) 2.72

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 IES - 2014
In wire-drawing operation, the maximum reduction per pass for
perfectly plastic material in ideal condition is

(a) 68 % (b) 63 %

(c) 58 % (d) 50%

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 Forging
Forging process is a metal working process by which metals or alloys
are plastically deformed to the desired shapes by a compressive
force applied with the help of a pair of dies.

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 Open and Closed die forging
Depending upon complexity of the part forging is carried out as open
die forging and closed die forging.

In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated blows by a

mechanical hammer and shape is manipulated manually.

In closed die forging, the desired configuration is obtained by

squeezing the workpiece between two shaped and closed dies.

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 Flash
The excess metal added to the stock to ensure
complete filling of the die cavity in the finishing
impression is called Flash.

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 IES - 2014
In hot die forging, thin layer of material all
around the forging is
(a) Gutter space, which fills up hot gases
(b) Flash, the width of it is an indicator of the pressure
developed in the cavity
(c) Coining, which indicates the quality of the forging
(d) Cavity, which is filled with hot impurities in the
material
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 Gutter
In addition to the flash, provision should be made in the die for
additional space so that any excess metal can flow and help in the
complete closing of the die. This is called gutter.

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 Gutter
Contd….

Without a gutter, a flash may become excessively

thick, not allowing the dies to close completely.

Gutter depth and width should be sufficient to

accommodate the extra, material.

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 IES – 1993, GATE-1994(PI)
Which one of the following manufacturing
processes requires the provision of ‘gutters’?

(a) Closed die forging

(b) Centrifugal casting

(c) Investment casting

(d) Impact extrusion

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 Drop Forging
The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower
half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the machine,
while the upper half is fixed to the ram. The heated
stock is kept in the lower die while the ram delivers
four to five blows on the metal, in quick succession so
that the metal spreads and completely fills the die
cavity.

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 IES – 1994, ISRO-2010
In drop forging, forging is done by dropping

(a) The work piece at high velocity

(b) The hammer at high velocity.

(c) The die with hammer at high velocity

(d) a weight on hammer to produce the

requisite impact.

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 Press Forging
Metal is squeezed gradually by a hydraulic or mechanical press and
component is produced in a single closing of die, hence the
dimensional accuracy is much better than drop forging.

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 GATE Question (ME-2007)
In open – die forging, a disc of diameter 200 mm and height 60 mm is
compressed without any barreling effect. The final diameter of the
disc is 400 mm. The true strain is

(A) 1.986

(B) 1.686

(C) 1.386

(D) 0.602

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 GATE Question (ME-2012)
A solid cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height 50 mm is forged
between two frictionless flat dies to a height of 25 mm. The
percentage change in diameter is

(A) 0

(B) 2.07

(C) 20.7

(D) 41.4

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 Forging

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 Types of forging operation
1. Fullering: distributing material from center to outward non
uniformly.
2. Drawing: distributing material from center to outward uniformly.
3. Upsetting: increasing cross section area by reducing the length.
4. Edging or Edgering : collecting material locally.
5. Flattening: producing flat surfaces.
6. Chamfering: converting sharp edged corners into rounded
corners.
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 Types of forging operation
7. Bending: bending the component into required angle.
8. Blocking or Swagging: producing approximate shape and size of
component.
9. Finishing: producing exact shape and size of component.
10. Trimming: removing flash from forged component.
Operations 1-6 are open die
7&8 are semi closed
9 is closed

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 Selection of sequence of operations
1. Except chamfering all other open die forging operations must be
done first then semi closed die and then closed die forging.
2. If closed die forging operation is used in producing the
component then trimming should also be done.
3. If sharp edges are produced in the forged component it has to be
converted into rounded corners using chamfering.
4. In general the trimming or chamfering will be the last operation
in producing a component using forging.

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 Sheet Metal Operations

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Piercing (Punching) and Blanking
 Clearance (VIMP)
Die opening must be larger than punch and known as ‘clearance’.
Punching
• Punch = size of hole
• Die = punch size +2 clearance
• Remember: In punching punch is correct size.

Blanking
• Die = size of product
• Punch = Die size -2 clearance
• Remember: In blanking die size will be correct.
Note: In punching clearance is provided on Die
In Blanking clearance is provided on punch
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 Punching Blanking
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 GATE-2003
A metal disc of 20 mm diameter is to be punched from a sheet of 2 mm
thickness. The punch and the die clearance is 3%. The required punch
diameter is

(a)19.88 mm (b)19.94 mm

(c)20.06 mm (d)20.12 mm

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 Shear on Punch and Die
• To reduce shearing force, shear is ground on the face of the die or punch.

• It distribute the cutting action over a period of time.

• Shear only reduces the maximum force to be applied but total work done
remains same.

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 GATE-2010 Statement Linked 1
In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5 mm thickness is cut along a length of
200 mm. The cutting blade is 400 mm long and zero-shear (S = 0) is provided on
the edge. The ultimate shear strength of the sheet is 100 MPa and penetration to
thickness ratio is 0.2. Neglect friction.
400

the work done (in J) is

(a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 250 (d) 300

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 GATE-2010 Statement Linked 2
In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5mm thickness is cut along a length of 200 mm. The cutting
blade is 400 mm long and zero-shear (S = 0) is provided on the edge. The ultimate shear strength
of the sheet is 100 MPa and penetration to thickness ratio is 0.2. Neglect friction.
400

A shear of 20 mm (S = 20 mm) is now provided on the blade. ,the maximum force (in kN) exerted is

(a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 20 (d) 40

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Slitting - moving rollers trace out complex paths during cutting (like a can
opener).

Perforating: Multiple holes which are very small and close together are cut
in flat work material.

Notching: Metal pieces are cut from the edge of a sheet, strip or blank.

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Trimming - Cutting unwanted excess material from the periphery of a
previously formed component.

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Lancing – A hole is partially cut and then one side is bent down to form a
sort of tab or louver. No metal removal, no scrap.

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Nibbling - a single punch is moved up and down rapidly, each time cutting off
a small amount of material. This allows a simple die to cut complex slots.

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 Embossing: is an operation in which sheet metal is drawn to shallow
depths with male and female dies; used for stiffening plates; used for
producing design on metal plates.

Coining: in coining operation a different design is created on each

side of the workpiece.

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 Drawing
Drawing is a plastic deformation process in which a flat sheet or plate is
formed into a three-dimensional part with a depth more than several times
the thickness of the metal.

As a punch descends into a mating die, the metal assumes the desired
configuration.

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 GATE-2003
A shell of 100 mm diameter and 100 mm height
with the corner radius of 0.4 mm is to be produced by
cup drawing. The required blank diameter is

(a) 118 mm (b) 161 mm

(c) 224 mm (d) 312 mm

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Drawing Force
D 
P   dt   C
d 
Blank Holding Force

Blank holding force required depends on the wrinkling tendency of

the cup. The maximum limit is generally to be one-third of the drawing force.

Draw Clearance

Punch diameter = Die opening diameter – 2.5 t

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 Deep Drawability
• The ratio of the maximum blank diameter to the diameter of the cup
drawn . i.e. D/d.

• There is a limiting drawing ratio (LDR), after which the punch will pierce
a hole in the blank instead of drawing.

• This ratio depends upon material, amount of friction present, etc.

• Limiting drawing ratio (LDR) is 1.6 to 2.3

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 Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR)
The average reduction in deep drawing
d
 0.5
D
 d 
Reduction   1    100%  50%
 D
Thumb rule:
First draw:Reduction  50 %
Second draw:Reduction  30 %
Third draw:Reduction  25 %
Fourth draw:Reduction  16 %
Fifth draw:Reduction  13 %
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 Spinning
Spinning is a cold-forming operation in which a rotating disk of sheet
metal is shaped over a male form, or mandrel.

Localized pressure is applied through a simple round-ended wooden

or metal tool or small roller, which traverses the entire surface of the
part

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 Spinning
1. A mandrel (or die for internal pieces) is placed on a rotating axis
(like a turning center).
2.A blank or tube is held to the face of the mandrel.
3.A roller is pushed against the material near the center of rotation,
and slowly moved outwards, pushing the blank against the mandrel.
4.The part conforms to the shape of the mandrel (with some
springback).
5.The process is stopped, and the part is removed and trimmed.
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 tc = tb sin 
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 GATE-1992
The thickness of the blank needed to produce, by
power spinning a missile cone of thickness 1.5 mm
and half cone angle 30°, is

(a) 3.0 mm (b) 2.5 mm

(c) 2.0 mm (d) 1.5 mm

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 IES – 1994
The mode of deformation of the metal during spinning is

(a) Bending

(b) Stretching

(c) Rolling and stretching

(d) Bending and stretching.

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 GATE-2005
A 2 mm thick metal sheet is to be bent at an angle of one radian with a bend
radius of 100 mm. If the stretch factor is 0.5, the bend allowance is

(a) 99 mm (b) 100 mm

(c) 101 mm (d) 102 mm

2mm

1 radian

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 Defects in Drawing - wrinkle
An insufficient blank holder pressure causes wrinkles to develop on the
flange, which may also extend to the wall of the cup.

Flange Wrinkle Wall Wrinkle

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 Defects in Drawing - Fracture
Further, too much of a blank holder pressure and friction may cause a
thinning of the walls and a fracture at the flange, bottom, and the corners (if
any).

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 Defects in Drawing -earing
While drawing a rolled stock, ears or lobes tend to occur because of the

anisotropy induced by the rolling operation.

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 Defects in Drawing – miss strike
Due to the misplacement of the stock, unsymmetrical flanges may result.
This defect is known as miss strike.

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 Defects in Drawing – Orange peel
A surface roughening (defect) encountered in forming products from metal
stock that has a coarse grain size.

It is due to uneven flow or to the appearance of the overly large grains

usually the result of annealing at too high a temperature.

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 Stretcher strains (like Luders Lines)
Caused by plastic deformation due to inhomogeneous yielding.

These lines can criss-cross the surface of the workpiece and may be visibly
objectionable.

Low carbon steel and aluminium shows more stretcher strains.

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 Surface scratches
Die or punch not having a smooth surface, insufficient lubrication

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 GATE-2006
Match the items in columns I and II.

Column I Column II

P. Wrinkling 1. Yield point elongation

Q. Orange peel 2. Anisotropy

R. Stretcher strains 3. Large grain size

S. Earing 4. Insufficient blank holding force

5. Fine grain size

6. Excessive blank holding force

(a) P – 6, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 2 (b) P – 4, Q – 5, R – 6, S – 1

(c) P – 2, Q – 5, R – 3, S – 4 (d) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 2

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