Temperature

ME304 – Mechanical Measurements
4. Temperature Measurement
Introduction
• Temperature: A measure proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic motion of
atoms and molecules. The flow of heat is from a high temperature
region toward a lower temperature region.
• The more kinetic energy the particles of an object have, the higher is
the temperature of the object.
• Temperature and pressure control various physical phenomenon
• Requires large range of measuring instruments (0 – 100,000 K)
Temperature Scales
• Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
• These are based on specification of number of increments (100 in
Celsius scale and 180 in Fahrenheit scale) between the freezing point
and boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure.
So (F-32)/180 = C/100 -------------- (1)
• The absolute Celsius scale is called Kelvin scale and that of Fahrenheit
is called as the Rankine scale.
Temperature Scales
Temperature measurement
• Parameters like
• Pressure
• Volume
• Electrical resistance
• Expansion coefficients
• etc
change with temperature. Hence these changes can be used to measure
temperature.
The Ideal Gas Thermometer
• Basis of working – behavior of ideal gas at low pressure
• Ideal gas equation pV = mRgT
V – volume occupied by the gas, m – mass, Rg – gas constant for a
particular gas given by Rg = R/M, where R is universal gas constant
(8.314 J/mol.K) and M is the molecular weight of the gas.
Volume V
The figure above shows a constant volume ideal gas thermometer. The
pressure gauge reads absolute pressure P and the metal ball has a
fixed volume V
The metal ball is exposed to an unknown
temperature (to be measured) and a known
standard temperature. The pressure in both cases
Volume V
are measured
Now,
T = Tref (p/pref)const vol
By using different gas thermometers a wide range of
temperatures can be measured:
Hydrogen -200 oC to +500 oC Volume V
Nitrogen +500 oC to + 1500 oC

Helium -270 oC to + 1500 oC
These thermometers can be very accurate, to within 0.005 oC from 0 oC

to 100 oC, 0.1 oC around 500 oC and to within 2 oC at 1500 oC
The copper bulb of a constant volume gas
thermometer has a radius of 0.05 meters.
When the bulb is filled to 1 atm pressure,
Volume V
there are ≈ 0.021 moles of gas in the bulb.
Using the slope of the pressure vs temperature
plot, estimate the ideal gas constant (R).
Calculate the percentage error with the
standard value for R of 8.314 J /mol.K .
Temperature Measurement by
Mechanical effects
• Techniques use change in mechanical dimension with change in
temperature.
• Examples : Liquid-in-glass thermometer, Liquid-in-metal thermometer,
Bimetallic strip
Mechanical effects
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
• It gives fairly accurate results within the temperature range
of -200 to 600°C.
• The working liquid is generally either mercury or alcohol.
• An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen is filled inside the
thermometer above mercury to trim down its volatilization.
Mechanical effects
Key features of liquid-in-glass thermometers include:
• The extent to which these thermometers are inserted into the medium
under temperature measurement principally decides the accuracy of results.
Typically, three classes of immersion exist which are total, partial and
complete immersion classified according to the level of contact between the
medium and the sensing element.
• An error can be produced when the thermometer is not immersed to the
same extent as it was when it was originally calibrated. An 'emergent stem
correction' may be necessary when it is not possible to immerse the
thermometer sufficiently deeply.
Mechanical effects
Key features of liquid-in-glass thermometers include:
• The response time of a liquid-in-glass thermometer varies according to the
kind of thermometer, its bulb volume, thickness and overall weight. For getting
quick response, the bulb of the thermometer should be designed in such a
way that it results in small and the bulb wall thin.
• Their sensitivity is based upon the reversible thermal expansion characteristics
of the liquid in comparison to the glass. The more the thermal expansion of
the liquid, the highly sensitive the thermometer is.
• Organic liquids which are usually employed for construction of liquid-in-glass
thermometers include toluene, ethyl alcohol and pentane. Although their
thermal expansion is high but they are non linear and their use is restricted
for high temperatures.
Mechanical effects
Liquid-in-metal thermometer
In liquid-in-metal thermometers, the system is filled with
liquid and changes in temperature of the liquid in the
sensing bulb cause changes in pressure which are
measured by pressure gauges. The working temperature
range is from –150 to 330°C as working substances used
are made of propyl alcohol, methaxylol, xylol, mercury,
etc.
Mechanical effects
Bimetallic strips
The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact that
different metals expand at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two
different metals together, you can make a simple electric controller that can
withstand fairly high temperatures.
Mechanical effects
Bimetallic strips
Bulb thermometers are good for measuring temperature accurately, but they
are harder to use when the goal is to control the temperature. The
bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is made of metal, is good at
controlling things.
Mechanical effects
Bimetallic strips
Main Features
• These types of thermometers work best at higher temperatures, since
their accuracy and sensitivity tends to reduce at low temperatures.
• Bimetallic strip thermometers are manufactured in various designs. One of
the most popular design i.e. flat spiral is shown in the figure below. They
can also be wound into a single helix or multiple helix form.
Mechanical effects
Bimetallic strips
Main Features
• Bimetallic thermometers can be customized to work as recording
thermometers too by affixing a pen to the pointer. The pen is located in such
a way that it can make recordings on a circling chart.
• Bimetallic strips often come in very long sizes. Hence, they are usually coiled
into spirals which make them compact and small in size. This also improves
the sensitivity of bimetallic strips towards little temperature variations.
• The bimetallic strip can be scaled up or down. On a large scale, it can
provide literally tones of force for mechanical control or other purposes. On
a smaller scale, it can provide the force and movement for micro machine
integrated circuits (MMIs).
Temperature Measurement by Thermoelectric effects
The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature
differences to electric voltage and vice versa.
A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different
temperature on each side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it
creates a temperature difference.
This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or
change the temperature of objects. Because the direction of heating and
cooling is determined by the polarity of the applied voltage, thermoelectric
devices can be used as temperature controllers.
Thermoelectric effects (Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson effects)
The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference
between junctions of two dissimilar electrical conductors or semiconductors
produces a voltage difference between the two substances.
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two dissimilar conductors or semiconductors
that contact each other at one or more points.
A thermocouple produces a voltage when the temperature of one of the contact points
differs from the temperature of another, in a process known as the thermoelectric
effect (Seebeck Effect).
The Seebeck effect creates an emf wherever there is a temperature gradient. This emf
is used to develop an open-circuit voltage. Under open-circuit conditions where there is
no internal current flow, the gradient of voltage ΔV is directly proportional to the
temperature gradient ΔT.
ΔV = S(T) ΔT, where S(T) is called as the Seebeck coefficient. It is a temperature

dependent material property.
Positive Metal/Alloy Negative Metal/Alloy Temperature Range

Type (°C)
T Copper Constantan -200 to +350
J Iron Constantan 0 to +750
K Chromel Alumel -200 to +1250
E Chromel Constantan -200 to +900
Advantages of Thermocouples
Temperature range: Most practical temperature ranges, from cryogenics to jet-

engine exhaust, can be served using thermocouples. Depending on the metal wires
used, a thermocouple is capable of measuring temperature in the range –200°C to
+2500°C.
Robust: Thermocouples are rugged devices that are immune to shock and vibration
and are suitable for use in hazardous environments.
Rapid response: Because they are small and have low thermal capacity,
thermocouples respond rapidly to temperature changes, especially if the sensing
junction is exposed. They can respond to rapidly changing temperatures within a
few hundred milliseconds.
No self heating: Because thermocouples require no excitation power, they are not
prone to self heating and are intrinsically safe.
Disadvantages
Complex signal conditioning: Substantial signal conditioning is necessary to convert

the thermocouple voltage into a usable temperature reading. Traditionally, signal
conditioning has required a large investment in design time to avoid introducing
errors that degrade accuracy.
Accuracy: In addition to the inherent inaccuracies in thermocouples due to their
metallurgical properties, a thermocouple measurement is only as accurate as the
reference junction temperature can be measured, traditionally within 1°C to 2°C.
Susceptibility to corrosion: Because thermocouples consist of two dissimilar metals,
in some environments corrosion over time may result in deteriorating accuracy.
Hence, they may need protection; and care and maintenance are essential.
Susceptibility to noise: When measuring microvolt-level signal changes, noise from
stray electrical and magnetic fields can be a problem.
Thermocouple circuit
Figure shows that the measured output voltage, VOUT, is the difference between the
measuring (hot) junction voltage and the reference (cold) junction voltage. Since VH
and VC are generated by a temperature difference between the two junctions, VOUT
is also a function of this temperature difference. The scale factor, a, which relates
the voltage difference to the temperature difference, is known as the Seebeck
coefficient.
When working with thermocouples, you must establish a reference point because
thermocouples are differential temperature-measurement devices. A
thermocouple provides a voltage that represents the temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions. If you know both the temperature of the cold
junction and the temperature of the hot junction relative to the cold-junction
temperature, you can determine the actual hot-junction temperature.
Rules for analysis of thermoelectric circuits
1. Law of intermediate materials

The net emf of the circuit, where any number of dissimilar materials are
introduced, remains the same as long as the new connections (junctions)are
at same temperature.
2. Law of intermediate temperatures
Let the Seebeck emf be E1 with the measuring junction at T1 and reference
junction at T2. Let E2 be the Seebeck emf with measuring junction at T2 and
reference junction at T3. Then the Seebeck emf E3 = E1+E2 will be the
Seebeck emf with the measuring junction at T1 and reference junction at T3.
Commonly used thermocouple circuit
In this example, the open ends of each wire are electrically connected to wires or
traces made of copper. These connections introduce two additional junctions into
the system. As long as these two junctions are at the same temperature, the
intermediate metal (copper) has no effect on the output voltage. This configuration
allows the thermocouple to be used without a separate reference junction. VOUT is
still a function of the difference between hot- and cold-junction temperatures,
related by the Seebeck coefficient.
Conventional reference cold junctions
In the early days of thermocouples, the ice-bath reference served as the standard
in thermocouple applications. Implementing an ice bath today is impractical in
most situations. Therefore, when the cold junction is not at 0°C, the temperature of
this junction must be known in order to determine the actual hot-junction
temperature.
Cold junction compensation
The output voltage of the thermocouple must also be compensated to account for the
voltage created by the nonzero cold-junction temperature. This process is known as
cold-junction compensation. To implement cold-junction compensation, the
temperature of the cold junction must be determined. This calculation can be
accomplished with any type of temperature-measurement devices - ICs, thermistors,
and RTDs. Requirements of a specific application will determine which type to use.
Thermopile
A thermopile is a device composed of several thermocouples connected usually in

series. The resulting total output voltage from a thermopile arrangement as shown in
the figure is equal to the sum of junction voltage differentials. So, thermopiles have
higher sensitivity compared to thermocouples. Thermopiles are hence useful to get
substantial voltage output even for small temperature differential.
Thermocouples in parallel
Thermocouples connected in parallel provides the average temperature value of the

points on which each thermocouple is connected. So they are used to find the average
temperature of a surface whose temperature may be non-uniform.
Temperature Measurement by Electrical effects
The relationship of the electrical resistance of a wire with its temperature is used to
measure the temperature.
Eg. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermistor
The linear temperature coeff. of resistance is defined as

� = (R2 – R1)/R1(T2-T1), where R2 and R1 are resistances at T2 and T1 respectively. This
equation is valid only for narrow ranges of temperature.
For wider ranges of temperature, the resistance is given by a quadratic relation,

R = R0(1+aT+bT2), where R and R0 are resistances at temperature T and T0 respectively. a
and b are experimentally determined constants.
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD
element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a
ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed
inside a sheathed probe to protect it.
They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications
below 600 °C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.
The advantages of Resistance Thermometers include:
1. High accuracy
2. Low drift
3. Wide operating range
4. Suitability for precision applications.
Limitations:
5. Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature
changes and have a slower response time.
6. RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C due to
contamination of resistance element at higher temperature.
7. RTDs are also prone to self-heating and lead wire errors.
Choice of RTDs vs thermocouples
1. Temperature: If process temperatures are between −200 to 500 °C (−328.0 to
932.0 °F), an industrial RTD is the preferred option. Thermocouples have a range
of −180 to 2,320 °C and so for temperatures above 500 °C (932 °F) they are the
only contact temperature measurement device.
2. Response time: If the process requires a very fast response to temperature
changes—fractions of a second as opposed to seconds then a thermocouple is the
best choice.
3. Size : A standard RTD sheath is 3.175 to 6.35 mm (0.1250 to 0.2500 in) in
diameter; sheath diameters for thermocouples can be less than 1.6 mm (0.063 in).
4. Accuracy and stability requirements: If a tolerance of 2 °C is acceptable and the
highest level of repeatability is not required, a thermocouple will serve. RTDs are
capable of higher accuracy and can maintain stability for many years, while
thermocouples can drift within the first few hours of use.
Construction of RTD
These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At

temperatures below about 250 °C PVC, silicone rubber or PTFE insulators are
used. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The measuring point, and
usually most of the leads, require a housing or protective sleeve, often made
of a metal alloy which is chemically inert to the process being monitored.
Selecting and designing protection sheaths can require more care than the
actual sensor, as the sheath must withstand chemical or physical attack and
The resistance measurement is performed in a RTD using bridge circuit.

There are two different configurations used for this purpose.
1. Two-wire configuration
It is only used when high accuracy is not required, as the resistance of

the connecting wires is added to that of the sensor, leading to errors of
measurement. This configuration allows use of 100 meters of cable.
2. Three-wire configuration
In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire

configuration can be used. Using this method the two leads to the
sensor are on adjoining arms. There is a lead resistance in each arm of
the bridge so that the resistance is cancelled out, so long as the two
lead resistances are accurately the same. This configuration allows up
to 600 meters of cable.
Thermistor
Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance in contrast to the positive coefficient displayed
by most metals.
The resistance of thermistor follows an exponential variation with
temperature,
R = R0 exp[β{(1/T) – (1/T0)}]
R0 - temperature at T0
β - experimentally determined constant
Thermistor
Advantages
• Very sensitive – resistance changes rapidly with temperature
• Small lead error – as thermistor itself is of high resistance.
• Low self-heating – as smaller currents are sufficient for excitation.
• Special feature – can be used for temperature compensation of
electrical circuits ??
Limitations
• Highly non-linear behavior
• Subject to deterioration at high temperature. (< 300oC)
Temperature Measurement by Radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic (wavelength range 0.1 – 100 μm)
Total thermal radiation emitted by a black body
Eb = σT4
σ – Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
Eb- emissive power, W/m2
T – absolute temperature, K
The emissive power of blackbody varies with wavelength as per the eqn.
Ebλ = C1λ-5/(eC2/ λT – 1)
Ebλ– monochromatic black body emissive power , W/m2
λ – wavelength (μm), T – temperature (K), C1=3.74x108 W. μm4/m2
When thermal radiation strikes a surface then,
α+ρ+τ=1
α – absorprtivity
ρ – reflectivity
τ – transmissivity
For most solids τ = 0, so α + ρ = 1
Emissivity is defined as ε = (E/Eb), where E is the emissive power of the
actual surface and Eb is the emissive power of black body at the same
temperature.
Under conditions of thermal equilibrium,
ε=α
Real surfaces exhibit highly variable emissivities over the wavelength
spectrum. Hence the real surface is frequently approximated as a gray
body having an emissivity equal to the average total emissivity of the
real surface as defined by
ελ = (Eλ /Ebλ ),
The emissivity of a gray body is constant for all wavelengths.
Wien’s Displacement Law
Black body radiation curve for different temperatures, peaks at a wavelength inversely
proportional to the temperature.
The shift in these maximum points explains the change in color as the body is heated
i.e., higher temperature results in concentration of radiation in lower wavelength
portion of the spectrum.
Optical Pyrometer
It is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface
from the spectrum of the thermal radiation it emits.
A modern pyrometer has an optical system
and a detector. The optical system focuses
the thermal radiation onto the detector.
The output signal of the detector
(temperature T) is related to the thermal
radiation of the target object through
the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of
proportionality σ, called the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of
the object.
Optical Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometer
E = εσT4
T = (E/εσ )(1/4)
Transient Temperature Measurement
Temperature sensor as a first order system
Consider a temperature probe as a system subject to transient temperature. ρ –
density of the probe material (kg/m3)
V – volume of the probe material (m3)
A – surface area of the probe (m2)
C – specific heat of the probe material (J/kg.K)
h – heat transfer coefficient between probe and the fluid (W/m2.K)
The probe is assumed to be thermally ‘lumped’ (at uniform temperature T for any
given time t). Let T0 be the initial temperature of the probe and T ∞ be the fluid
temperature.
By energy conservation,
Rate of change of energy stored in the probe = Rate of heat transfer between
the probe and the fluid
Transient Temperature Measurement
•Temperature sensor as a first order system
That is,
-------------------------(4.1)
-----------------------------(4.2)
has the unit of time and is called as the time constant τ of the first order
system (Note: Study the effect of parameters on time constant) . It involves
thermal and geometric properties. Equation (4.2) can now be written as
----------------------------(4.3)

Temperature

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ME304 – Mechanical Measurements

So (F-32)/180 = C/100 -------------- (1)

Hydrogen -200 oC to +500 oC Volume V

Nitrogen +500 oC to + 1500 oC

These thermometers can be very accurate, to within 0.005 oC from 0 oC

ΔV = S(T) ΔT, where S(T) is called as the Seebeck coefficient. It is a temperature

Positive Metal/Alloy Negative Metal/Alloy Temperature Range

Temperature range: Most practical temperature ranges, from cryogenics to jet-

Complex signal conditioning: Substantial signal conditioning is necessary to convert

1. Law of intermediate materials

A thermopile is a device composed of several thermocouples connected usually in

Thermocouples connected in parallel provides the average temperature value of the

Eg. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) and Thermistor

The linear temperature coeff. of resistance is defined as

For wider ranges of temperature, the resistance is given by a quadratic relation,

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At

The resistance measurement is performed in a RTD using bridge circuit.

It is only used when high accuracy is not required, as the resistance of

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances, a three-wire

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