Chapter 10

1. The Sampling Process and Hold

2. z-transform
3. Pulse Transfer Function
4. Discrete time Response
5. Stability Concept and Test
6. Steady State Analysis
7. Root Locus Analysis
 Continuous Disontinuous *
y y
signal signal

y y*

9 12
1 3 5 7 9 11 t (sec) 1 3 6 t (sec)

T = 1 sec

y*
(a) (b)

9 12
3 6 t (sec)

T = 3 sec
(c)
 Continuous signal and its discrete-time representation with different sampling rates

y* y*
t t

t = nT t t = nT t
y* (b)
(a)
Impulse area   nT 

t = nT t
(c)
 From the response of a real sampler to the response of an ideal impulse sample
 The Sampling Process
Impulse
y (t) Sampler y*

y*  t   y(0) (t)  y(T) (t - T)  ....  y(nT) (t - nT)  ...


  y(nT) (t - nT)
n 0

1. At sampling times, strength of impulse is equal to value of input signal.

2. Between sampling times, it is zero.

Laplacing

y (s)   y(nT)L [ (t - nT)]
*

n 0


or y (s)   y(nT) e -nTs
*

n 0
 The Hold Process :
From Discrete to Continuous Time

discrete Continuous
impulses m* (t) m (t) output
Hold Device

 Zero – Order Hold :

m(t)  m* (t) for nT  t  (n  1)T

 Transfer Function :
Response of an impulse input :  (t)
1

 t

m* (t) m (t)

t T

 1 - e -Ts 
-Ts
1 e 1
H(s)  -
s s s
 First Order Hold
m(nT) - m[(n - 1)T]
m(t)  m(nT)  (t - nT)
T
nT  t  (n  1)T n  2,3,4....etc

Response to an impulse input

T 2T

-1

Transfer function: 2
1  sT  1 - e -sT 
H(S)   
T  s 
 First Order versus Zero Order Hold
m* (nT)
m (t)

m (t)

0 t
1T 3T 5T 7T 0 t
1T 3T 5T 7T

(a) (b)

0 t
1T 3T 5T 7T
(c)

Comparison of reconstruction with zero-order and first-order holds, for slowly varying signals.
m* (nT)
m (t)

m (t)
0 2T 4T 6T 8T 10T t
0 2T 4T 6T 8T 10T t
(a) (b)

0 2T 4T 6T 8T 10T t
(c)

Comparison of reconstruction with zero-order and first-order holds, for rapidly changing signals.
 Z-Transforms
Sample
y(t) yz(t)


y ( s )   y ( n )e  nTs
z

n 0

Let z  eTs

y ( s )   y ( n ) z  n
z

n 0

 y( z )

 
 
Ζ y (t )  y(z) 
z
 y(n )z
n 0
-n

Remarks
1. z-transform depends only on the discrete values y(0), y(‫)ז‬,y(‫)ז‬..etc. If two
continuous functions have the same sampled values , then z-transform
will be the same.

2. It is assumed that the summation exists and is finit.

3. We can also view t in the form Z[ y (s) ] = ŷ(z)

 Z-Transforms of Basic Functions
1. Unit Step Function

Z[u(t)]  1  1 z 1  1 z 2  1 z 3  ......
1 z
 
1  z 1 z-1
2. Exponential Function

   e
 
Ze -at  anT
z n
  λ n , λ  e -aT z 1
n 0 n 0

1

1 λ
1
 -aT 1
1-e z
z

z-e -aT
e -aT z 1  1 for convergence
 Z-Transforms of Basic Functions (2)

3. Ramp Function

Z  at   S  0  aT(z 1 )  2(aT)z 2  3(aT)z 3  ...

z 1S  aTz  2  2(aT)z 3  
1 1 2 aTz 1
3
(1  z ) S  0  aT(z )  (aT)z  (aT)z  ... 
1  z 1

4. Trigonometric Functions
zsinwT
Z sinwt   2
z  2zcoswT  1
z 2  zcoswT
Z coswt   2
z  2zcoswT  1
 Z-Transforms of Basic Functions (3)
5. Translation

Z  f(t - kT)  Z e  kTs
f ( s )   f (z)z  k

Z  f(t - kT)   f(nT  kT)z  n
n 0

 let   n - k,assume f( τ)  0 for   0 


 
n  k
f( τ)z   k

   f( τ)z -  z  k
0

 f (z) z  k
Z-transform for Numerical
Derivative

z f(t - T)  f (z)z 1

z-1 is like a back shift operator

dy ynt  yn 1
 
dt T

 y n  y n 1  1  z
Z 
1

y(z)

 T  T
 Properties of z-Transforms
1. Linearity

 
Z a f a f

 1 1 2

2

 a f (z)  a f (z)
1 1 2 2

2. Final Value Theorem

lim y(t)  lim (1-z )yˆ (z) -1

t  z 1
  
Proof: (1-z )fˆ y(z)(1 z )  y(nT ) z  n   y(nT ) z  n   y(nT ) z  n 1
-1 -1

n0 n0 n0

lim   y( 0 )-y( 0 )z -1  y(T )-y(T)z -1 z1 y( 2T)-y( 2T)z -1 z 2.... y(nT)
     
n 

 
 

  

As z1 lim (1 z1 )yˆ(z) lim y nT  lim y(t)
z 1 n   t 
 Numerical Integration in z-transform
t nT
y(t)   f t dt
0
nT
y nT   y (n-1 )T    f(t)dt
(n-1 )T

Using Trapezoidal Rule

f(nT )  f  n-1T 
 y (n 1 )T    T
2

yˆ(z)  yˆ (z) z 1  T  fˆ(z) z 1 fˆ(z)

 
2  
or solving

yˆ  z   T 1 z fˆ  z 
1

2 1 z 1
 Inversion of z-transforms

1.Partial fraction expansion Q ( z 1 ) c1 c2 cn

yˆ ( z )     ... 
P ( z 1 ) 1 ( z 1 ) 2 ( z 1 ) n ( z 1 )

λ1, λ2,… λn are low-order polynomials in z-1 compute c1,c2,…cn.

Invert each part separately, we able
z z 1
yˆ ( z )  2 
z  4 z  3 1  4 z 1  3 z  2
z 1 c1 c2
  
(1  z 1 )(1  3 z 1 ) 1  z 1 1  3 z 1
z 1 1
c1  z 1 1

1  3 z 1 2
z 1 1
c1  1 
1  z 1 z 1 3 2
1 2 12
 y( z) 
ˆ 
1  z 1 1  3 z 1
 From Tables of z-transforms

y(nT) = -1/2 + 1/2 e11n

y:0,1,4,13,0,…
z 1
yˆ ( z ) 
1  4 z 1  3 z  2
2.Inversion by Long-Division
1z-1+4z-2+13z-3
1-4z-1+3z-2 z-1
z-1-4z-2+3z-3
4z-2+3z-3
4z-2-16z-3+12z-4
13z-3-12z-4
y(0) = 0
y(T) = 1
y(2T) = 4
y(3T) = 13
 Z-Transforms Table

f(t) F(s) F(z)

unit impluse 1
1
unit step 1/s 1
1  z 1
ramp: f(t) = at a/s2 aTz 1
(1  z 1 ) 2
f(t) = tn n!/sn+1
n 1
lim (1) n

a 0 a n 1  e  aT z 1
f(t) = e-at 1/s+a 1
1  e  aT z 1
e  aT z 1
f(t) =te-at 1/(s+a)2
(1  e  aT z 1 ) 2
 Z-Transforms Table (2)

f(t) F(s) F(z)

f(t) = sinωt  z 1 sin T

s2   2 1  2 z 1 cos T  z  2
s 1  z  cos T
f(t) = cosωt
s2   2 1  2 z 1 cos T  z  2
a (1  e  aT ) z 
f(t) = 1-e-at s( s  a) (1  z 1 )(1  e  aT z  )
 z  e aT sin T
f(t) = e-at sinωt (s  a)2   2 1  2 z 1e  aT cos T  e  2 aT z 2
sa 1  z 1e  aT cos T
(s  a)2   2 1  2 z 1e  aT cos T  e  2 aT z 2
f(t) = e-at cosωt
Discrete-Time Response of
systems

In computer control:
measurements are taken periodically and
control actions implemented periodically,
This results in a discrete input/discrete
output dynamic system.

en cn
Discrete System
Example of Discrete Systems
Let dc

 ken  c
dt
a discrete time approximation is
cn  cn 1
  ken  cn
T
 
cn  cn 1  kcn  cn
T T
 
(1  )cn  cn 1  ken
T T

Taking z-transform
 
(1  )  cˆ( z )  z 1  cˆ( z )  keˆ( z )
T T
cˆ( z ) k
or 
e( z ) (1   )   z 1
T T
Z-transform for a given continuous
system with Transfer function G(s)
and a ZOH
1  e Ts 
Z  H ( s )G ( s )   Z  G (s) 
 s 
G  s   Ts G  s  
Z   Z e 
 s   s 
 G  s   1  G  s  
Z z Z  
 s   s 
G  s 
  1 z  Z 
1

 s 
Example: Pure Integrator with Hold
1  e  ST Kp
c*(s) s s y*(s
)
1  e Ts K p
HG p ( s)  
s s
1  e Ts K p Kp K p e Ts
Z  HG ( s )  Z [ . ]  Z[ 2 ]  Z[ 2 ]
s s s s
1
Kp 1
K pTz K pT  z 1
 [1 - z ]  Z [ 2 ]  [1  z ]
-1

s (1  z 1 ) 2 (1  z 1 )

Step response

Hence of 1
c( s ) 
s
1
cˆ( z ) 
1  z 1
K p  z 1 1 K p  z 1
yˆ ( z )   
(1  z 1 ) (1  z 1 ) (1  z 1 ) 2

which impulse a ramp response

Example ： First order lag system
1  e  ST K p
H ( s )G p ( s )  
s  ps 1
1  e  ST Kp
Z [ HG ( s )]  Z [  ]
s s ( p s  1)
1
Kp
 [1  z ]Z [ ]
s ( p s  1)
11 1
 K p [1  z ]Z [  ]
s s 1  p
11 1
 K p [1  z ][ 1
 T  p 1
]
1 z 1 e z
T 
(1  e p ) z 1
 Kp T 
1  e p z 1
 Step Response for 1st order
lag system
From tables, for
1 1
c( s )  cˆ( z ) 
s 1  z 1
  p
K p (1  e ) z 1
yˆ(z)   
(1  z 1 )(1  e p z 1 )
Kp Kp y(t)
  ＊ ＊ ＊ ＊ ＊ ＊ ＊

(1  z ) (1  e   p z 1 )
1 ＊
＊

＊
 nT  p
y (nT )  K p [1  e ] ＊

y (t )  K p to t   ＊

time
Note: Compare with discrete approximation to
First-order system
 Generalization
cn  a 0en  a1en  1  ...  aken  k  b1cn  1
 b 2cn  2  ...  bmcn  m
cˆ( z )  a 0eˆ( z )  a1 z 1eˆ( z )  ...  ak eˆ( z ) z  k
 b1cˆ( z ) z 1  b2 cˆ( z ) z  2  ...  bm cˆ( z ) z  m

or cˆ( z ) a0  a1 z 1  a2 z 2  ...  ak z  k
 1 2 m
 D( z )
eˆ( z ) 1  b1 z  b2 z  ...  bm z

D (z)=Transfer function relating e and c

Analogous to Laplace transfer
Discrete time input/output model

Remark ：
Note that D(z) is the z-transform of the response of the system
to an impulse input eˆ( z )  1
 Z-transform of a Continuous
Process with Sample and Hold
Hold Process
H (s) Gp (s)
discrete c*(s) y (s) y*(s)
input
discrete
continuous output
variables

we seek a relationship (Z-transfer function) between c and y.

Consider a impulse input c*(z)=1

c*(s)=1
Then y ( s )  H ( s)Gp ( s )c  ( s)
 H ( s)Gp ( s )
yˆ ( z )  Z  y  s  
 Z [ H  s  Gp ( s)]
 HGP ( z )

HGp(z) called the pulse transfer function

(since it represents the z-transform of the pulse response of Gp (s) )
Properties of Pulse Transfer Function

1. Z  G1 ( s)G2 ( s )  Z  G1 ( s )  Z  G2 ( s )

2.An impulse input is converted into a pulse input by the first

order hold element . Hence HG(z) is the pulse response of
G(s) sampled at z internals of T.

3.The pulse transfer function of two systems in series can be

combined if there is a sample and hold in between.

c1 c2
c3
G1(z) G2(z)
T

c3 ( z ) c2 ( z ) c3 ( z )
 G3 ( z )  G1 ( z )  G2 ( z )
c1 ( z ) c1 ( z ) c 2( z )
 Closed-Loop System
disturbance
Hold Process y2 ( s)
T eˆ( z ) T
+ D (z) H (s) Gp (s)
y(2)
set m (s)
ysp (z) - ˆ( z )
c y1(s)
point

yˆ ( z )
sampled output

yˆ ( z )  Z  y ( s )  Z  y1 ( s )  y 2 ( s ) 
 Z  y1 ( s )  Z  y 2 ( s )
 HG p ( z )eˆ( z )  yˆ 2 ( z )
 HG p ( z ) D ( z )eˆ( z )  yˆ 2 ( z )
 
 HG p ( z ) D ( z ) y sp ( z )  yˆ ( z )  yˆ 2 ( z )

or HG p ( z ) D ( z ) y sp ( z ) yˆ 2 ( z )
yˆ ( z )  
1  HG p ( z ) D( z ) 1  HG p ( z ) D ( z )

1. Roots of the Characteristic equation

1+HGp(z)D(z)=0
Determine stability of the closed-loop system
2. Note similarity to continuous system.
 Example: Closed-loop Response of
a First-order System
kp
G p (s) 
 pS 1
T / 
(1  e p
) z 1
HG p ( z )  k p T / 
1 e p
z 1

For proportional control

D( z )  kc
T / 
(1  e p
) z 1
kp T /  p 1
kc yˆ sp ( z )
ˆ ( z) 
y 1 e z
T /  p
(1  e ) z 1
1 k p T /  p 1
kc
1 e z
k p k c (1  b) z 1
 ˆ sp ( z )
y

1  k p k c  b1  k p k c  z 1

where
T / p
be
 Example: Closed-loop Response
of a First-order System
1
For a unit step change in set point yˆ sp ( z ) 
1  z 1

and
k p k c (1  b) z 1 1
yˆ ( z )  1

1  [ k p k c  b(1  k p k c )]z (1  z 1 )

y (nT ) 
k p kc
1  k p kc
1  e  nT /  p 

 p
p 
1  k p kc
 The response is very similar to continuous control.

The steady state value of y(t) is

Kc K p
y
1 K p Kc

Hence the offset is

Kc K p 1
offset  1  
1  Kc K p 1  K p Kc
 Stability of Discrete Systems
A system is consider to be stable if output remains bounded for bounded
Inputs. Consider a discrete system with transfer function

c (z) a0  a1 z 1      am z m
D(z)    1 n
e (z) 1  b1 z      bn z
c1 c2 cn
 1
 1
  
1  P1 z 1  P2 z 1  Pn z 1

Where P1,P2,…,Pn are n roots of:

1  b1 z -1  b2 z -2  .....  bn z -n  0
 
For an impulse imput e(z)  1 and C(z)  D(z)
consider the k th term
Ck
f K (z)  1
1 - PK z
f k (nT)  C K e nlnPK

Let PK  α  jβ | PK | e jw
ln Pk  ln(PK )  jw
e lnPK
e ln(PK )
e jw

e nlnPK  e nln(PK ) e njw

The second term is always bounded between(-1 and 1)
IF
| PK | 1 then ln | PK | 0 and e nln|PK |  0 as n  
| PK | 1 then ln | PK | 0 and e nln|PK |  1
| PK | 1 then ln | PK | 0 and e nlnPK   as n  

Hence : if PK lies within the unit - circle on the complex

plane, PK will remain bounded.

" A discrete system is stable if all its poles lies inside

or on the unit circle in the complex plane"
Im

Unstable
roots

real

STABLE
REGION
Unit
circle
Location of poles
Consider the impule response of a system with
1
D(z) 
1 - P1 z 1
 1 2 -2
y(z)  1
 1  P1 z  P1 z  ....
-1

1 - P1 z
y(1)  P1
na
y(nT)  P1
if | P1 | 1, y(t)   as t  
0  Pi  1 then y(t)  0 : exponential decay
- 1  P1  0 then y(t)  0 : oscillatory
Three stability tests
 Schur-Cohn stability test
 Jury Stability test (simpler than Schur-
Cohn)
 Routh stability coupled with bi-linear
transformation.
 Lyapunov stability analysis applicable
in state space representation
Jury Stability Test
 Assume that the characteristic
equation:
Jury Table
Jury Test
Stability Criteria
Example
Example
Example 2
Example 2
 For K=1:
Example 2
Example 2
Routh Stability Criteria
 Transform Characteristic equation in z-
domain into w-domain using bilinear
transformation
 Use the same Routh Stability Criteria
in w-domain
Bilinear Transformation
 Bilinear approximation can be solved
for s =(1/T)ln(z):
Routh Stability Criteria

Need to use Bilinear transformation first.

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 3
STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

E(s)=R(s)-C(s)H(s)
STEADY STATE ANALYSIS
UNIT STEP INPUT ANALYSIS
UNIT RAMP INPUT ANALYSIS
UNIT PARABOLA INPUT ANALYSIS
SUMMARY STEADY STATE ERROR
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
ROOTLOCUS ANALYSIS
 • The effect of system gain and/or sampling period on the
absolute and relative stability of the closed loop system
should be investigated in addition to the transient response
characteristics. Root locus method is very useful in this
regard.
 • The root locus method for continuous time systems can be
extended to discrete time systems without much modifications
since the characteristic equation of a discrete control system
is of the same form as that of a continuous time control
system.
ROOTLOCUS ANALYSIS
 In many LTI discrete time control systems, the characteristics
equation may have either of the following two forms.

1+G(z)H(z)=0 or
 1+GH(z)=0
 Define 1+L(z)=0
 So L(z)=-1: same as RL in continuous time
 So, rootlocus contruction is the same as in continuous time.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
 For T=1 sec

 Break-away/in points: z=0,6065 and

z=-0,6065
 Critical gain Kc=4,328
EXAMPLE
Constant damping
ratio, normalized
settling time, and
normalized peak time
plots on the z-plane

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
The s-plane sketch
of constant percent
overshoot line

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Example 13.10

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Root Locus

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Root locus
with constant
0.7 damping ratio
curve

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Sampled step
response of the
system of with
K = 0.0627

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Closed-loop
response
for the
compensated
system showing
effect
of three different
sampling
frequencies
©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Analog antenna azimuth position
control system converted to a
digital system

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Root locus
superimposed
over constant
damping ratio
curve

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Sampled step
response of the
antenna azimuth
position control
system

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Simplified block
diagram of antenna
azimuth control
system

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,
Closed-loop digital
step response for
antenna control
system with a lead
compensator.

©2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nise/Control Systems Engineering,