Porosity Logs

CHAPTER 04
Porosity Logs
Porosity
2
 This section contains information about the three

common porosity measurements;
Sonic/Acoustic, Density, and Neutron.
Although called “porosity” measurements, none
of the logging tools actually measure porosity
directly. It is this indirectness that leads, in part,
to the interpretation of the measurements in
pairs or in triads. The Porosity Combination
part of this section details the interpretations
that produce better estimates of porosity, and as
a by-product, estimates of formation lithology.
Porosity Logs 05/11/2020

 The next class of well logs to be considered is
generally referred to as porosity logs. Although
3 each produces a porosity value from basic
measurements, none actually measures porosity
directly. Two such logs, the density and neutron,
are nuclear measurements. A third log, the sonic,
uses acoustic measurements, and the fourth and
newest log senses the magnetic resonance of
formation nuclei. When used individually, each of
the first three has a response to lithology which
must be accounted for, but when used in concert,
two or three at a time, lithology can be estimated
and a more accurate porosity derived.


Nuclear Magnetic
4
Resonance Log
 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logging
was first introduced by Schlumberger in 1978
(Maute, 1992) but was not initially widely
used because of operational limitations. With
the commercial introduction of the Magnetic
Resonance Imaging Log (MRIL) by NUMAR
Corporation (now part of Halliburton) in 1980
(Halliburton, 1999) and the release of the
Combinable Magnetic Resonance Tool (CMR)
by Schlumberger, the technique is steadily
gaining acceptance.
 The measurement technique is closely related to
medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in
5
that it senses the fluids in the formation
surrounding the borehole (like MRI senses the
fluids in the body) while the solids are largely
invisible. In the logging tool, a powerful
permanent magnet in the tool causes the
protons in the formation fluids (mostly in the
hydrogen) to align. An antenna in the tool then
sends a signal into the formation, causing the
protons to tip away from that original alignment.
When the antenna signal is turned off, the
protons begin to realign in the strong magnetic
field, producing a signal called the spin echo.

 Repeated application of the antenna's signal
leads to the measurement of many spin echoes,
6 gathered as a spin echo train which is
interpreted to estimate formation properties.
Different interpretation and measurement
methods lead to estimates of porosity, pore
fluid types, and pore size distribution in the
formation. Like the other porosity
measurements, NMR measures mostly in the
invaded and mixed zones of the formation
around the wellbore. Unlike the other porosity
measurements, the porosity determined from it
is much less sensitive to lithologic changes than
the porosities determined from those
measurements.
7
 Because wide use of NMR logs is

relatively new, this technique is often
used alone in the determination of
porosity rather than in concert with the
other porosity tools (sonic, density, and
neutron). For these reasons, NMR
logging is considered separately in
Chapter 6.

8

SONIC LOG
9
 The sonic log is a porosity log that measures interval

transit time (Δt, delta t, or DT) of a compressional
sound wave traveling through the formation along the
axis of the borehole. The sonic log device consists of
one or more ultrasonic transmitters and two or more
receivers. Modern sonic logs are borehole-
compensated (BHC) devices. These devices are
designed to greatly reduce the spurious effects of
borehole size variations (Kobesh and Blizard, 1959) as
well as errors due to tilt of the tool with respect to the
borehole axis (Schlumberger, 1972) by averaging
signals from different transmitter-receiver
combinations over the same length of borehole.

10

 Interval transit time (Δt) in microseconds per
foot, µsec/ft (or microseconds per meter, µsec/m)
11 is the reciprocal of the velocity of a
compressional sound wave in feet per second (or
meters per second). Interval transit time (Δt ) is
usually displayed in tracks 2 and 3 of a log
(Figure 4.1). A sonic-derived porosity curve (SPHI)
is sometimes displayed in tracks 2 and 3, along
with the DT curve. Track 1 usually contains a
caliper (CALI), and a gamma ray (GR) or an SP.
 The interval transit time (Δt) is dependent upon
both lithology and porosity. Therefore, a
formation's matrix interval transit time (Table 4.1)
must be known to derive sonic porosity either by
chart (Figure 4.2) or by the following formulas:

12

13

14

15

16

 Wyllie time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958):
4.1 t log  t ma
S 
17 t fl  t ma
 Raymer-Hunt-Gardner (RHG) equation (Raymer et al.,
1980):
4.2 5 t log  t ma
  *S
8 t log
Where:
S
 = Sonic-derived porosity
 Δt
ma = interval transit time in the matrix (Table 4.1)
 Δtlog = interval transit time in the formation

 Δtfl = interval transit time in the fluid in the formation
(freshwater mud =189 µsec/ft; saltwater mud = 185
µsec/ft)
Unconsolidated
18
Formations:
 The Wyllie et al. (1958) formula for calculating
sonic porosity can be used to determine porosity
in consolidated sandstones and carbonates with
inter-granular porosity (grainstones) or inter-
crystalline porosity (sucrosic dolomites).
However, when sonic porosities of carbonates
with vuggy or fracture porosity are calculated by
the Wyllie formula, porosity values are too loThis
happens because the sonic log only records
matrix porosity rather than vuggy or fracture
secondary porosity.

 The percentage of vuggy or fracture
secondary porosity can be calculated by
19
subtracting sonic porosity from total porosity.
Total porosity values are obtained from one of
the nuclear logs (i.e., density, neutron, or
preferably the combination of density and
neutron). The percentage of secondary
porosity, called SPI or secondary porosity
index, can be a useful mapping parameter in
carbonate exploration.
 Where a sonic log is used to determine
porosity in  unconsolidated
t log  t ma  1 sands, an

empirical compaction
S  
*
factor (Cp) should be

 t fl et
added to the Wyllie
t ma  C P
al. (1958) equation:
4.3
Where:
 Cp = compaction factor
20
 The compaction factor is obtained from the following
formula:
4.4 t sh * C
CP 
Where: 100
 t
sh = interval transit time in a shale adjacent to the
formation of interest.
 C = a constant which is normally 1.0 (Hilchie, 1978).
 Interval transit time values from selected depths on
Table 4.5.
 These constants are used in the chart in Figure 4.2 to
determine sonic porosity, which is listed in Table 4.6.

21

22

Hydrocarbon Effects:
23
 The interval transit time (Δt) of a

formation is increased due to the
presence of hydrocarbons (i.e.,
hydrocarbon effect). If the effect of
hydrocarbons is not corrected, the sonic-
derived porosity is too high. Hilchie
(1978) suggests the following empirical
  for
corrections S * hydrocarbon
0.7 effect:
(gas)
   S * 0.9 4.5
(oil) 4.6
24

25

DENSITY LOG
26
 Density is measured in grams per cubic

centimeter, g/cm3 (or Kg/m3 or Mg/m3),
and is indicated by the Greek letter ρ
(rho). Two separate density values are
used by the density log: the bulk density
(ρb, or RHOB) and the matrix density
(ρma). The bulk density is the density of
the entire formation (solid and fluid
parts) as measured by the logging tool.
The matrix density is the density of the
solid framework of the rock.
27

 It may be thought of as the density of a
particular rock type (e.g., limestone or
28 sandstone) that has no porosity. Since the
late 1970s, the density log has also been
used for the photoelectric-effect
measurement (Pe, PE, or PEF) to determine
lithology of a formation. The density log can
assist the geologist to:
1. Identify evaporite minerals.
2. Detect gas-bearing zones.
3. Determine hydrocarbon density.
4. Evaluate shaly-sand reservoirs and complex
lithologies (Schlumberger, 1972).
 The density logging tool has a. relatively
shallow depth of investigation, and as a
29
result, is held against the side of the
borehole during logging to maximize its
response to the formation. The tool is
comprised of a medium-energy gamma
ray source (cobalt 60, cesium 137, or in
some newer designs, an accelerator-
based source). Two gamma ray detectors
provide some measure of compensation
for borehole conditions (similar to the
sonic logging tool).

 When the emitted gamma rays collide with electrons
in the formation, the collisions result in a loss of
30
energy from the gamma ray particle. The scattered
gamma rays that return to the detectors in the tool
are measured in two energy ranges. The number of
returning gamma rays in the higher energy range,
affected by Compton scattering, is proportional to the
electron density of the formation. For most earth
materials of interest in hydrocarbon exploration, the
electron density is related to formation bulk density
through a constant (Tittman and Wahl, 1965), and the
bulk density is related to porosity. Gamma ray
interactions in the lower energy range are governed
by the photoelectric effect. The response from this
energy range is strongly dependent on lithology and
only very slightly dependent on porosity.

 The bulk-density curve (RHOB) is
recorded in tracks 2 and 3 (Figure 4.3).
31
The photoelectric-effect curve (Pe in
barns per electron, b/e) is displayed in
either track 2 or track 3, with its
placement set to minimize its overlap
with the bulk-density curve. A correction
curve (DRHO in g/cm3 or Kg/m3), is also
displayed in either track 2 or track 3
(Figure 4.3). This curve indicates how
much correction has been added to the
bulk-density curve during processing due
to borehole effects (primarily mud cake
thickness) and is used primarily
Porosity Logs 05/11/2020 as a
32

 Whenever the correction curve (DRHO)
exceeds 0.20 g/cm3, the value of the bulk
33
density obtained from the bulk-density
curve (RHOB) should be considered
suspect and possibly invalid. A density-
derived porosity curve (DPHI) is
sometimes present in tracks 2 and 3
along with the bulk-density (RHOB) and
correction (DRHO) curves. Track 1 usually
contains a gamma ray log and a caliper
(Figure 4.3).
 The photoelectric-effect curve appeared
as part of the second-generation density
tools, which are commonly referred to as
 Formation bulk density (ρb) is a function of matrix
density, porosity, and density of the fluid in the
34 pores (saltwater mud, freshwater mud, or
hydrocarbons). To determine density porosity,
either by chart (Figure 4.4) or by calculation, the
matrix density (Table 4.2) and type of fluid in the
formation must be known. The formula for
calculating density porosity is:
 b   ma
D  4.7
 fl   ma
Where:
  D = density derived porosity
 ρ
ma = matrix density (see Table 4.2 for values)
 ρb = formation bulk density (the log reading)

 ρfl = fluid density (see Table 4.2 for values)
35

Importance of Correct ρma and ρfl
36
values:
 A computer in the logging unit calculates density
porosity from the measured bulk density of the
formation using Equation 4.7. The wellsite
geologist or logging unit engineer specifies the
matrix and fluid densities that are to be used- If
the formation's actual matrix density (ρma) is less
than the matrix density used to calculate the
porosity [e.g., calculating porosity of a sandstone
(ρma = 2.64 g/cm3) using a limestone matrix
density (ρma = 2.71 g/cm3)], the log shows a
calculated porosity that is higher than the actual
porosity of the formation.
 If the formation's actual fluid density is less than
the fluid density used to calculate the porosity
37
[e.g., calculating the porosity of a saltwater-filled
formation (ρfl =1.1 g/cm3) using a freshwater
value (ρfl = 1.0 g/cm3)], the log shows a
calculated porosity that is lower than the actual
porosity of the formation. Because of the wider
range of matrix-density values than fluid-density
values, errors in estimating the matrix density
have a larger impact on the calculated porosity.
 Bulk-density values from selected depths on the
log in Figure 4.3 are listed in Table 4.7. Those
values are used in the chart in Figure 4.4 to
determine density porosity, which is listed in
Table 4.8.
38

39

40

Hydrocarbon Effects
41
 Where invasion of a formation is shallow,
the low density of the formation's
hydrocarbons causes the calculated
density porosity to be greater than the
actual porosity. Oil does not significantly
affect density porosity, but gas does (gas
effect). Hilchie (1978) suggests using a
gas density of 0.7 g/cm3 for fluid density
(ρfl) in the density-porosity formula if gas
density is unknown. Because the presence
of oil has little effect on the density log,
this tool usually Porosity
provides the best
Logs 05/11/2020
Heavy Minerals
42
 Any time the bulk density of a formation (ρb) is

greater than the assumed matrix density (ρma)
of the formation [e.g., when measurements are
made in an anhydrite (ρma = 2.96 g/cm3) but
are recorded using a limestone matrix (ρma =
2.71 g/cm3)], the resulting density porosity is
negative. It is important to note that in cases
like this the logging tool is operating properly,
but the assumptions made in the conversion
between bulk density and density porosity are
incorrect.
 In cases like this, where the porosity is
clearly erroneous (because it is negative),
43
the log still yields good information.
Negative density porosity is often a good
indication of the presence of anhydrite or
other heavy minerals, as shown in Figure
4.5 over the intervals 11,550 to 11,567 ft
and 11,600 to 11,618ft.
 Powdered barite is commonly added to
mud to increase mud density. When heavy
muds are used (e.g., 14 lb/gal), the high
Pe of the barite (Table 4.2) in the mud can
mask the Pe of the adjacent rock layers.
44

45

NEUTRON LOG
46
 Neutron logs are porosity logs that measure the
hydrogen concentration in a formation. In clean
formations (i.e., shale-free) where the porosity is
filled with water or oil, the neutron log measures
liquid-filled porosity (φN , PHIN, or NPHI).
 Neutrons are created from a chemical source in
the neutron logging tool. The chemical source is
usually a mixture of americium and beryllium
which continuously emit neutrons. When these
neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation
the neutron loses some of its energy.

47

Formation Interaction
Borehole
Formation
Long
Spaced
Detector
Short
Spaced
Detector
Thermal
Phase
Neutron
Source
Neutron Interactions
Four principal
Neutron
interactions:
 Elastic Scattering - moderating
interaction
 Inelastic Scattering - moderating
interaction
Neutron Scattering
Elastic Scattering
Inelastic
Scattering
- at thermal level (0.025eV) - at high

energies (>1MeV)
- billiard ball collision - excites nucleus
Neutron Capture
Thermal Capture
Fast Capture
- at thermal level (0.025eV) - at high
energies (>1MeV)
- results in stable or - results in
usually unstable nucleus.
Important Interactions
Four principal Neutron
interactions:
 Elastic Scattering
 Inelastic Scattering
 Thermal Capture
 Fast Capture
53

Neutron-Hydrogen
Interaction
Typical Cross-sections
Average No. of
Capture Scattering
Element Element Collisions to reduce
Cross Section Cross Section
Atomic No. Symbol Neutron energy from
(Barns) (Barns)
2MeV to 0.025eV
1 H 0.3 20 18
6 C 0.0032 4.8 115
8 O 0.0002 4.1 150
14 Si 0.13 1.7 261
17 Cl 31.6 10 329
48 Cd 2500 5.3 1028
HYDROGEN very effective in slowing down Neutrons

commonly found in formation fluids
CHLORINE is a good absorber (Capture)

dissolved salts in formation water
CADMIUM - excellent as a shield

Basics
 Pore Space is filled with fluids (commonly wate
oil and gas)
 Formation fluids contain hydrogen
 Hydrogen has a high scattering X-section
 Gas has a low concentration of hydrogen
 Chlorine ( ) has a high capture X-section
common in water
How?
 A two detector system reduces environmental
Highlights of Neutron Log
57
 Counts are inversely related to porosity!!

 Less counts mean High Hydrogen Index
and more porosity
 Neutron log is usually logged in
limestone units
 Different lithology will require correction
of values before using them!
 Gives total porosity

 With enough collisions, the neutron is absorbed
by a nucleus and a gamma ray is emitted.
58
Because the hydrogen atom is almost equal in
mass to the neutron, maximum energy loss
occurs when the neutron collides with a hydrogen
atom. Therefore, the energy loss is dominated by
the formation's hydrogen concentration. Because
hydrogen in a porous formation is concentrated
in the fluid-filled pores, energy loss can be
related to the formation's porosity.
 The neutron curves are commonly displayed over
tracks 2 and 3, in units referenced to a specific
lithology (usually either limestone or sandstone,
depending on the geologic environment expected
to be encountered), as illustrated in Figure 4.5.
59

 Neutron log responses vary, depending on:
1. Differences in detector types and what they
60
2. Detect (gamma rays and/or neutrons of
different energies)
3. Spacing between source and detector
4. Lithology (le., sandstone, limestone, and
dolomite)
 While the variations due to detector types and
tool designs are fixed (and are accounted for
in the data processing), the variations in
response due to lithology must be accounted
for by using the appropriate charts (Figures
4.6 and 4.7).
61

62

 A geologist should remember that the
responses of different neutron logs differ from
63 each other (unlike all other logs) and must be
interpreted from the specific chart designed for
a specific log (i.e., Schlumberger charts for
Schlumberger logs and Halliburton charts for
Halliburton logs). The reason for this is that
while other logs are calibrated in basic physical
units, neutron logs are not (Dresser Atlas,
1975).
 Table 4.11 shows the results of lithology
corrections that are made to neutron
measurements using the correct and incorrect
charts for the specific neutron tool.
64

 The first neutron logs detected the gamma
rays that were products of neutron capture by
65 formation nuclei. Initially, each logging
company had its own calibration system, but
eventually the American Petroleum Institute
(API) developed calibration pits to provide a
common standard for measurement (Serra,
1984). Generally these logs were displayed in
counts per second (cps) or API Neutron Units
rather than porosity. Although charts to
convert from displayed units to porosity exist
(Bassiouni, 1994), arbitrary conversions using
core data or estimated formation porosities
have most often been used. It should be noted
that the neutron log response is inversely
proportional to porosity so that low-
 The first modern neutron log (where
porosity was directly displayed) was the
66
sidewall neutron log. Like the density log
(and for the same reason of limited depth
of investigation), the sidewall neutron log
has both the source and detector in a pad
that is pushed against the side of me
borehole. Although the sidewall neutron
log was relatively insensitive to lithologic
effects, it was sensitive to borehole
effects, such as roughness which caused
measurement difficulties.

 The most commonly used neutron log is
the compensated neutron log which has a
67
neutron source and two detectors. Like
the sidewall neutron log, it directly
displays values of porosity. The
advantage of compensated neutron logs
over sidewall neutron logs is that they are
less affected by borehole irregularities.
Both the sidewall and compensated
neutron logs can be recorded in apparent
limestone, sandstone, or dolomite
porosity units. If a formation is limestone,
and the neutron log is recorded in
apparent limestonePorosity Logs
porosity
05/11/2020 units,
 However, when the lithology of a
formation is sandstone or dolomite,
68
apparent limestone porosity must be
corrected to true porosity by using the
appropriate chart (Figure 4.6 illustrates
the lithology corrections for one model of
Halliburton neutron log, and Figure 4.7
the corrections for a Schlumberger
neutron log). The procedure is identical
for each of the charts and is shown in
Figures 4.6 and 4.7.
 Neutron-porosity values from selected
depths on the log in Figure 4.5 are listed
in Table 4.9. Those values are
Porosity Logs used in the
05/11/2020
69

70

Hydrocarbon effects
71
 Whenever pores are filled with gas

rather than oil or water, the reported
neutron porosity is less than the actual
formation porosity. This occurs because
there is a lower concentration of
hydrogen in gas than in oil or water. This
lower concentration is not accounted for
by the processing software of the
logging tool, and thus is interpreted as
low porosity. A decrease in neutron
porosity by the presence of05/11/2020
Porosity Logs gas is called
Shale Effect
72
 Whenever clays are part of the formation
matrix, the reported neutron porosity is greater
than the actual formation porosity. This occurs
because the hydrogen that is within the clay's
structure and in the water bound to the clay is
sensed in addition to the hydrogen in the pore
space. Because the processing software of the
logging tool expects all hydrogen in the
formation to reside in the pores, the extra
hydrogen is interpreted as being part of the
porosity. An increase in neutron porosity by the
presence of clays is called shale effect.
73

74

75

POROSITY MEASUREMENT
COMBINATIONS
76
 Although the advent of porosity logs

provided a substantial improvement in
log interpretation, the significant
change, from a geological viewpoint,
was the development of interpretive
techniques that combined the
measurements from different porosity
tools.

 With combinations of two or three
measurements, lithology could be
77
interpreted (rather than having to be
known) and a better estimate of porosity
produced. The interpretation of lithology
and porosity is accomplished through cross
plots. These are x-y plots of the quantities
of interest, usually overlain with lines for
"pure" lithologies (normally sandstone,
limestone, and dolomite) with porosity
indicated on each lithology line (e.g., Figure
4.11).

78

Density Porosity
Density response model
1-f rma
rf
f
Volumetric Contribution rb = rma (1-f) )++ rf f
 ma  
   
D
B
ma f
Bulk Density is measured.

Matrix Type and the Fluid Type from Lithology identification
Porosity can be derived from Bulk Density if matrix known
Section
Menu
Compatible Scale
Density from TLD and Neutron Porosity from HGNS

OVERLAY
when formation matches the density porosity model.
(ie: when the assumption of matrix and fluid type is correct)
Common compatible scales :

Limestone compatible Sandstone compatible
+0.45 NPHI - 0.15 +0.45 NPHI - 0.15

+1.95 RHO +2.95 +1.90 RHO +2.90
Z Z
+0.60 NPHI 0.00 +0.60 NPHI 0.00

+1.70 RHO +2.70 +1.65 RHO +2.65
Z Z
Section
Menu
Compatible Scale Quicklook
Section
Menu
Compatible Scale
Quicklook….2
Section
Menu
Neutron-density Combination:
Quick-look Lithology and Porosity
83
 The combination of the neutron and density

measurements is probably the most widely
used porosity log combination. The neutron-
density log display consists of neutron-porosity
(NPHI) and density-porosity (DPHI) curves
recorded in track 2 and 3 (Figure 4.5) and a
caliper (CALI) and gamma ray (GR) in track 1.
Both the neutron and density curves are
normally recorded in limestone porosity units,
however, porosity referenced to sandstone and
dolomite can also be recorded.
84

 The extensive use of the neutron-density
combination may be due in part to the fact that
85 they were among the first logging tools that
could be physically combined and their data
acquired in a single logging run. The response of
the combination is such that for reconnaissance
evaluation one can forego the cross-plot and rely
on recognition of the curve patterns (the
position of the curves with respect to each
other) to quickly determine the most likely
predominant lithology and formation porosity.
 Figure 4.8 illustrates the use of the neutron-
density combination to determine formation
lithology and to estimate porosity.

86

 The reconnaissance technique works best with the
following constraints:
87 1. Both the neutron and density curves are in porosity
(decimal or percent) referenced to limestone units.
2. The formations are clean (no clays in the
formations).
3. There is no gas in the formations, only water or oil.
 Using only the neutron-porosity and density-porosity
curves, single lithologies can be predicted with little

ambiguity. Adding the gamma ray may help, as in
identifying dolomite from shale. In mixed lithologies,
such as the sandy limestone and sandy dolomite
shown, even the addition of the gamma ray does not
help.

 If the density log is of the newer litho or
spectral type and a photoelectric curve
88
(Pe) is available, the ambiguity can be
further lessened, especially in the case of
mixed lithologies. The value of the Pe
curve in mixed lithologies falls between
the single lithology values of each
member, so some distinction can be
made. Table 4.3 summarizes the patterns
and values for common lithologies.
 The estimation of porosity is equally
straightforward: the formation porosity
can be estimated to within about 2
porosity units (0.02) by 05/11/2020
Porosity Logs taking the
89

 In areas of the world where sand and
shale intervals predominate, the neutron
90
and density are referenced to sandstone
rather than limestone to eliminate the
need for matrix conversion. (This also
helps highlight the gas crossover effect
described below.) While Figure 4.8
focuses on lithology changes in clean
(clay-free) formations with widely varying
lithologies, Figure 4.9 illustrates neutron
and density patterns in a variety of shaly
sands, with both porosities referenced to
sandstone.
91

 The effects of gas and clays are greater
on the neutron measurement than on the
92
density, with the neutron simultaneously
being driven lower by gas and higher by
clays in a shaly gassy formation. The
exact location of the neutron curve with
respect to the density curve is
determined by the amounts of clay and
gas present in the formation.
 Table 4.12 shows the quick-look lithology
determination in Figure 4.8 applied to the
data in Figure 4.5.

93

Neutron-density Combination:
Gas Detection
94
 Another technique using the neutron and

density logs and the identification of
curve patterns is that of gas
identification. Gas in the pores causes
the density porosity to be too high (gas
has a lower density than oil or water)
and causes the neutron porosity to be
too low (there is a lower concentration of
hydrogen atoms in gas than in oil or
water).
 Figure 4.10 shows an example of a gas
zone. In that zone, the neutron porosity is
95
less than the density porosity, and the
two porosity curves cross over each other.
This is called crossover. The magnitude of
the crossover (the amount of separation
between the curves) is qualitatively
related to the gas saturation; however,
the crossover is more strongly influenced
(again qualitatively) by the formation
pressure. Low-pressure zones, either at
shallow depths or depleted from
production, tend to show large crossover.
96

 Neutron-density crossover can also be caused by
lithologic effects, as when the curves are
97 displayed referenced to a lithology that is
different from the actual lithology of the
formation. Figure 4.8 illustrates this in the
sandstone formations with the curves displayed
referenced to limestone. It is important to check
the log header for lithology-reference information
as well as knowing the actual lithology of the
formation in question before predicting the
presence of gas from the log patterns only.
 The porosity of a gas-bearing formation can be
estimated by either form of the following
equation:
 N2   D2 1 2
 NDgas   *N  *D
2 3 3 Porosity Logs 05/11/2020
98
Where:

 φ
NDgas = porosity of the gas-bearing
formation
 φ = neutron porosity
N
 φD = density porosity

Porosity Combinations: Cross-plots:
99
 Cross-plots are a graphical way to solve fairly complex
relationships using two (or three) porosity measurements
to estimate formation lithology and porosity. All these
cross-plots have the same general format: one
measurement is displayed along the x-axis, and another
is displayed along the y-axis. The measurements are
either in porosity units referenced to limestone or, in the
case of density and sonic logs, they can be in the original
measurement units (ρb in g/cm3 or Kg/m3 for the density,
and Δt in µsec/ft or µsec/m for the sonic). Superimposed
on the plot (as an overlay) are pure lithology lines, usually
sandstone, limestone, and dolomite. Porosity is indicated
along each of these lines. See Figure 4.11 as an example.

100

 In the interpretation, the values of the
two measurements of interest are plotted
101
on the cross-plot. The intersection of
those values on the plot determines both
the porosity and the lithology of the point.
If the point lies between two lithology
lines, the lithology is taken as a mixture
of those two lithologies (with the
dominant lithology being that of the line
closest to the point). The porosity is
estimated by joining points of equal
porosity on the two lithology lines and
interpolating between the lines of equal
porosity. Figure 4.11 illustrates
Porosity Logs 05/11/2020 the
 It should be noted that not all
interpretations are unique. In fact, the
102
data often plot in such a way that there
are two possible lithology pairs, and the
decision of which to chose lies with the
interpreter's knowledge of the area (or
the application of other data). In some
plots, as noted below and shown in the
accompanying figures, the choice of
lithologic pair significantly affects the
predicted porosity value.
 Other minerals can also be plotted on the
cross-plot, as distinct points (rather than
lines indicating varying porosity).
Porosity Logs 05/11/2020 Figure
 Log values for other pure minerals are available
in the log interpretation chart books provided
103
by most well log (wire-line and MWD)
acquisition companies. Although the existence
of pure (and thick) beds of some minerals is
very rare, the location of the mineral point on
the cross-plot (and the shift of the data toward
that point) may sometimes give some
indication that the mineral is present in the
formation of interest.
 Table 4.4 details the advantages and
limitations of each of the four cross-plots. The
cross-plots are listed in the order of preference
of use, from top to bottom.
104

105
 Figures 4.11 to 4.14 and Tables 4.13 to

4.15 illustrate the determination of
porosity and lithology using the first three
cross-plot techniques in Table 4.4.

106

107

108

109

110

111

Extending the Cross-plot
112
Technique
 Given that the use of two porosity
measurements can lead to the prediction of a
more lithologically complex subsurface (i.e., the
formation described as a two-mineral mixture),
the natural extension is to use three
measurements to estimate a ternary mixture.
There are two different techniques, with one
having two variations. Both techniques are more
concerned with determining lithology than with
determining porosity, the porosity having been
determined from the previous two-measurement
cross-plots (usually the neutron-density).
M-N lithology Plots:
113
This technique is the oldest of the three-

measurement lithology techniques, and
was based on combining the three
porosity measurements in such a way so
that two quantities could be used in a
cross-plot. The two calculated quantities
t fl  t
are:  t fl  t 
M  * 0.01 M  * 0.003 metric  
 b   fl     
 b fl 4.9
 Nfl   N
N
 b   fl
4.10
114
Where:
 Δt = Interval transit time in the formation (from the
log)
 Δt
fl = Interval transit time in the fluid in the
formation
 ρ = formation bulk density (from the log)
b
 ρfl = fluid density

 φN = neutron porosity (in limestone units, from the
log)
 φNfl = neutron porosity of the fluid of the formation
(usually = 1.0)
 Figure 4.15 shows the resulting plot. As
115
in the two-mineral cross-plots, a number
of common mineral points are plotted.
For the common minerals (lithologies) of
interest (quartz [sandstone], calcite
[limestone], and dolomite), each mineral
is associated with a group of points. The
open and closed circles connected by
dashed lines indicate the location of the
point in freshwater and saltwater muds,
respectively. The groups of these
connected points indicate ranges in
porosity. Porosity Logs 05/11/2020
116

 Data plotted on this cross-plot show the following
patterns: For a single pure mineralogy, the data
117 plot around the point representing that
mineralogy- For binary mineral systems, the data
plot along a line connecting the two
mineralogical members, with the location of the
points along the line indicative of the mineral
mixture of each point. For ternary systems, the
data plot in a triangle with the three member
mineralogies as the vertices of the triangle, and
with the location of each data point in the
triangle indicative of the mineral mixture of that
point. Note that porosity is not predicted from
this plot but is determined from the earlier two-
component cross-plots.
 Although two common mineral triangles are
usually used as examples (either
118 quartz/calcite/dolomite or
calcite/dolomite/anhydrite), any three .minerals
that plot uniquely on the cross-plot can be used.
One need not see data clustered around a
particular mineral end-point to sense the
presence of a mineral. The presence of small
amounts of a mineral tend to draw the data away
from the primary mineral (or mineral mixture)
and toward the secondary mineral endpoint.
 Table 4.16 shows the calculation of M and N
values and the resulting lithology estimations
from Figure 4.15.

119

Mineral-identification Plots:
120
 These plots rely on the calculation of apparent

matrix values as cross-plot parameters. The
apparent matrix values are determined (when
done graphically) through what are essentially
cross-plots, created to emphasize matrix values
rather than porosity. Apparent matrix density
(ρmaa) is determined from an equivalent of the
neutron-density cross-plot and is shown in Figure
4.16. Apparent matrix travel time (Δt maa) is
determined from an equivalent of the neutron-
sonic cross-plot and is shown in Figure 4.17.

121

122

 The calculation of apparent matrix values (Western
Atlas, 1995) is:  b   ND *  fl
123 4.11  maa 
1   ND
t   NS * t fl
4.12 t maa 
1   NS
Where:
 ρ = bulk density (from the log)
b
 ρfl = fluid density

 φND = neutron-density crossplot porosity
 φNS = neutron-sonic crossplot porosity
 Δt = Interval transit time in the formation (from the
log)
 Δtfl = Interval transit time in the fluid in the formation

 The neutron and density data (through the
neutron-density cross-plot) produce an apparent
124 matrix density (as well as a neutron-density cross-
plot porosity), and the neutron and sonic data
(through the neutron-sonic cross-plot) produce an
apparent matrix travel time (as well as a neutron-
sonic cross-plot porosity).
 These two apparent matrix values are then
applied to a cross-plot (Figure 4.18). In Figure
4.18, the three common lithologies, highlighted in
the previous cross-plots, occur on the plot as
points which are connected to form a triangle.
The location of the point on the plot, with respect
to that mineral triangle, indicates the relative
lithologic mixture.
125

 In practice, any three minerals that have unique
values (with respect to each other) can be used
126 as endpoints in a mineral triangle (e.g., a calcite,
dolomite, and anhydrite choice is common in a
known carbonate area). As with the M-N plot
described previously, data from a single pure
mineralogy plot around the point representing
that mineralogy. For binary mineral systems, the
data plot along a line connecting the two
mineralogical members, with the location of the
points along the line indicative of the mineral
mixture of each point. Note that porosity is not
predicted from this plot, but is determined from
the earlier two-component cross-plots.

 Figures 4.16 and 4.17 and Tables 4.17 and 4.18 shows
the calculation of apparent matrix values. Figure 4.18
127
and Table 4.19 show the application of those apparent
matrix values to determine lithology. A variation on
this technique was developed with the advent of the
Pe curve on the more recent density logs. Using the
Pg curve, the bulk-density curve, and the neutron
porosity another matrix parameter, apparent matrix
volumetric photoelectric factor U maa), can be
be calculated from (Western


determined (as shown in Figure 4.19), or its value can
 Pe *  b1995):
Atlas,
   ND * U fl 
U maa 
4.13 1   ND
Where:
 U = fluid volumetric cross section (0.398 barns/cm 3
fl
for fresh water, 1.36 barns/cm 3 for salt water)
 φ
ND = neutron-density cross-plot porosity

128

129

130

131

132

133
 Volumetric cross section, Umaa, to
determine formation lithology (Figure
4.20). As with the ρmaa - Δtmaa crossplot,
the three common lithologies are
connected in a mineral triangle, but any
three unique mineralogies can be used to
estimate a three-mineral solution.
 Figures 4.16 and 4.19, and Tables 4.17
and 4.20 show the calculation of apparent
matrix values. Figure 4.20 and Table 4.21
show the applicationPorosity
of Logs
those apparent
05/11/2020
matrix values to determine lithology.
134

135

136

137

138

Beyond the three-mineral
139
model
 For more complex mineralogical
solutions, the use of other log
measurements is required. These
techniques go beyond the cross-plotting
techniques discussed here. Some
techniques are deterministic in nature
(as are the cross-plot techniques) but
rely on iterative computational
techniques for a solution. Other
techniques rely on the use of statistical
techniques to estimate the05/11/2020
Porosity Logs most likely
 Figure 4.21 is an example of a
deterministic solution. In this case, shale
140
volume is calculated independently (the
gamma ray was used for this example)
and was used as one of the input curves.
With the additional inputs of interval
transit time, neutron porosity, bulk
density, and Pe, the software solved for
four minerals (beyond the shale volume):
calcite, dolomite, anhydrite, and quartz.
In the figure, porosity and fluid
saturations (from the deep resistivity log)
were also determined and are shown
incorporated into the Porosity
same Logs display.
05/11/2020
141

Implications for Correlation and Mapping
142
 Standard correlation (and mapping) practices use the
raw logs (gamma ray, resistivity, etc.) to trace
formation boundaries in the subsurface. With the
existence of software that can easily and quickly
estimate formation lithologies and porosities, the
correlation process might be better served (and be
more accurate) if correlations were made on the
actual quantities of interest (like lithology), instead of
on the raw logs, many of which respond to multiple
properties of the formations in the subsurface.
 This section summarizes the cross-plot methods
previously discussed.

Consistency in Lithology
143
Prediction
 Seven methods to determine lithology have been
covered in this chapter. One is based on pattern
recognition (quick-look neutron-density), three on the
simultaneous use of two porosity tools, and three on the
simultaneous use of three porosity tools. Table 4.22
compares me lithology prediction results of these
methods. With some exceptions, the results are fairly
consistent, but they are not identical. The variation in
the results has many sources. Borehole conditions may
play a part in the variation, especially since, in this case,
the data were used directly from the logs with no
attempt at environmental corrections- Formation
thickness and, hence, the effects of adjacent beds on
the measurement in the target bed also play a part.

144

 The variability of the formations
themselves probably has a more
145
significant effect. In a geologic
environment like this one (Figure 4.21), it
can be expected that the lithologies
encountered are not always pure. The
response of the individual measurements
to that mixture varies between
measurements and contributes to the
variation seen here.
 The result of the cross-plots, while not
wildly variable, underscores the need for
other data, in this case, samples of the
formations themselves. Porosity Logs 05/11/2020
146

147
 Cores through the section would be

ideal, but their cost would probably be
prohibitive. Cuttings samples would be a
good source of lithology information,
even given the potential mixing and
contamination problems, Sidewall cores,
either in this well (if the log analysis
could be completed quickly) or in
subsequent wells in zones with
questionable predicted lithology, would
help to reconcile thePorosity
results shown here.
Logs 05/11/2020
REVIEW
148
1. The three common types of porosity logs are:

 Sonic
 Density
 Neutron
2. The sonic log is a porosity log that measures the

interval transit time (delta t, or DT, or Δt) of a
compressional sound wave through the
formation. The unit of measure is microseconds
per foot (µsec/ft) or microseconds per meter
(µsec/m). Interval transit time is related to
formation porosity.
3. The density log is a porosity log that
measures the electron density of a
149
formation. The formation's electron
density is related to a formation's bulk
density (RHOB or ρb). Bulk density is
measured in g/cm3 or Kg/m3. Bulk density,
in turn, can be related to formation
porosity.
4. Density logs made since about 1980 also
have a photoelectric curve (Pe, PE, or
PEF) that responds primarily to formation
lithology and is affected in only a minor
way by porosity and the type of fluids in
the pore space. Porosity Logs 05/11/2020
150
5. The neutron log is a porosity log that

measures the hydrogen concentration in
a formation. In shale-free formations
where porosity is filled with water, the
neutron log can be related to water-filled
porosity (PHIN or NPHI or φN).
6. In gas reservoirs, the neutron log records
a lower porosity than the formation's true
porosity because gas has a lower
hydrogen concentration than oil or water
(gas effect). Porosity Logs 05/11/2020
151
7. The neutron-density combination is the

most widely used porosity measurement
combination. Porosity, adjusted for
lithology, can be determined from the
neutron-density combination either by a
cross-plot chart or by formula.
8. Additional uses of the neutron-density
combination are:
 Detection of gas bearing zones
 Determination of lithology

152
End of Chapter 04

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CHAPTER 04

 This section contains information about the three

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 Because wide use of NMR logs is

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 The sonic log is a porosity log that measures interval

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 Δtlog = interval transit time in the formation

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 Interval transit time values from selected depths on

determine sonic porosity, which is listed in Table 4.6.

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 The interval transit time (Δt) of a

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 Density is measured in grams per cubic

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 ρb = formation bulk density (the log reading)

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 Any time the bulk density of a formation (ρb) is

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 Elastic Scattering - moderating

 Inelastic Scattering - moderating

- at thermal level (0.025eV) - at high

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HYDROGEN very effective in slowing down Neutrons

CHLORINE is a good absorber (Capture)

CADMIUM - excellent as a shield

 Counts are inversely related to porosity!!

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 Whenever pores are filled with gas