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Ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals
Metals are among the most useful building materials. They exist in nature as
compounds like oxides, carbonates, sulphides and phosphates and are known as
ores. Metals are derived from ores by removing the impurities.
Those used for engineering purposes are classified as ferrous metals, with iron
as the main constituent, such as
1. cast iron
2. wrought iron
3. steel

cast iron wrought iron steel


Structures of Ferrous Metals
Iron is a pure element occurring in four different allotropic structures as alpha,
beta, delta, and gamma iron.

Alpha iron is weak and ductile, possesses magnetic properties and is unable to
dissolve carbon
Beta iron is hard, brittle, non-magnetic and dissolves carbon
Delta iron has properties similar to Beta iron
Gamma iron absorbs negligible carbon and is non-magnetic
Structures of Ferrous Metals
Of these the common commercial forms are gamma iron with its fcc (face-
centered cubic) structure formed at temperatures from 1394°C to 912°C, and
alpha iron which has bcc (body-centered cubic) structure formed at
temperatures from 912°C to 273°C.
The delta form is commercially unimportant
Gamma iron containing carbon, is called austenitic and alpha iron containing
carbon, is called ferritic
Iron
Iron is by for the most important of the metals used in engineering construction.
It is available in abundance, but does not occur freely in nature. The ores of iron
are classed according to the iron mineral which is predominant. The iron content
of the main ores are as follows:
Pig Iron
Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of 1200°C and melts easily. It
can be hardened but cannot be tempered and magnetised. Its compressive
strength is high but is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and
cannot be riveted or welded.

Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc.
Cast Iron
Pig iron is remelted with limestone
(flux) and coke and refined in Cupola
furnace. It is then poured into moulds
of desired size and shape.

The striking difference between steel


and cast iron is that the form or is
plastic and forgeable while the latter is
not. However, some of the modern cast
iron develop a fair degree or plasticity
and toughness.
Cast iron
Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in
compression (600 N/mm2) but weak in tension (150 N/mm2) and shear. Its
specific gravity is 7.50. It has low melting point (1200°C) and is affected by sea
water. It cannot be magnetized and is not suitable for forging.
Cast Iron
Sand Casting The most common casting procedure involves pouring molten
metal into a cavity in a mass of packed sand. Wooden patterns are used for
moulds which are removed when the sand has dried. Each mould has a hole for
casting through which the molten iron is poured. Air and hot gases escape
through another hole. Cast material is taken out by breaking the mould after
iron cools down.
Cast Iron
Hollow Casting is used for making columns and piles. For hollow casting of the
objects a solid core is placed where the hollow is to be maintained. After casting
the core and mould are taken out. Cast material becomes hollow due to the
core.
Cast Iron
Vertical Sand Casting The mould box and the solid core is kept in vertical
position. Alter cooling the core is taken out by crane. Good quality pipes can be
obtained by this method.
Cast Iron
Centrifugal Casting Many blow holes are left in ordinary casting because of little
control over temperature and the sand mould. The problem is overcome by
centrifugal casting.
Molten material is poured in a revolving metallic cylindrical mould in a
controlled manner, rotating at the rate of 10,000 revolutions per minute. Large
diameter pipes, gun barrels, etc. are cast by this method.
The castings are dense and have a fine-grained structure with uniform and high
physical properties. They are least subjected to directional variations on
properties than static castings.
Cast Iron
Die casting is cheap for commercial production. Casting is done under pressure,
which may be as high as 140 MN/mm2, into a split die cavity. Since the die is
water cooled, the molten metal solidifies quickly, permitting early removal of
the casting.
Effect of Impurities
Carbon The melting temperature of cast iron is reduced as the carbon content
or the percentage of combined carbon is increased. Consequently white cast
iron has a lower melting point than grey cast iron. Shrinkage varies inversely as
the carbon content.
Silicon increases the fluidity of the molten iron, decreases blow holes and
increases the density of castings. It also reduces the solubility of carbon in iron
and shrinkage. When silicon is increased up to 6 per cent the iron becomes hard
and has a mirror-like fracture.
Effect of Impurities
Sulfur is an undesirable element in cast iron and is limited to less than 0.1 per
cent. It combines with manganese to form the sulphide (MnS) or, if the
manganese is very low and not sufficient to satisfy the sulfur, iron sulphide (FeS)
may be formed. Since these sulphides solidify at considerably lower
temperatures, than cast iron, they tend to make castings brittle and weak at
higher temperatures. High sulphur content also increases shrinkage and causes
hard, brittle iron. These may be neutralized by proper additions of silicon.
Effect of Impurities
When phosphorus is less than 0.5 per cent, it has no marked effect on cast iron.
Usually it is present to the extent of 0.1 to 1.5 per cent. If more than 2 per cent,
the iron is embrittled and strength diminished. High phosphorus irons are much
more fluid and shrink less, which make them suitable for ornamental castings.
Manganese When present in range of 0.4–1.2%, manganese combines with
sulphur, and— having satisfied sulphur—with carbon to form manganese
carbide. It increases the tensile strength and hardness of iron. Manganese
increases the solubility of carbon in iron and opposes the liberation of graphite,
which is a cementite stabilizer. High percentage of manganese increases
shrinkage and hardness. Thus in grey iron which is to be machined manganese
should be kept low.
Uses
On account of cheapness, strength, ease with which it may be melted and cast
into more or less intricate shapes, ease of machining, high damping capacity,
and ease with which its hardness may be varied, cast iron is the most used of
the cast metals employed in engineering constructions and machines.
Some of the more common uses of cost iron are making ornamental castings
such as wall brackets, lamp posts; bathroom fittings such as cisterns, water
pipes, sewers, manhole covers, sanitary fittings and; rail chairs, carriage wheels
and machine parts subjected to shocks. It is used as basic material for
manufacturing wrought iron and mild steel.
Wrought Iron
Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing the
impurities of cast iron. The total impurities are limited to 0.5 percent with :
1.) maximum percentage of carbon as 0. 15%,
2.)silicon 0.15–0.2%,
3.)Phosphorus 0.12–0.16%,
4.)sulphur 0.02–0.03% and
5.)manganese 0.03–0.1%.
It is manufactured in reverberatory
or puddling furnace by Astor’s process
Properties
o Wrought iron is ductile, malleable, tough and moderately elastic.
o Its ultimate crushing strength is 200 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength is
40 N/mm2.
o Transverse to the direction of the rolling the tensile strength ranges from 60
to 85 per cent of its strength parallel to this direction
o The modulus of elasticity of wrought iron is 1.86 × 105 N/mm2
Properties
o The melting point of wrought iron is 1500°C and sp. gr. about 7.80
o Wrought iron effectively resists corrosion.
o It is tough and withstands shocks and can neither be hardened nor tempered
o At about 900°C wrought iron becomes so soft that its two pieces can be
jointed by hammering.
Uses and Defects
Uses
Roof coverings, rivets, chains, ornamental iron works such as gates, etc. are made of wrought
iron.
Defects
o Very high sulphur content (0.3–0.5%) is likely to cause the wrought iron to crumble or
exhibit red shortness, in forging or welding
o A phosphorus content of 0.4–0.5% causes the wrought iron to be cold short
Red shortness is the tendency of steel to form cracks during hot pressure treatment, such as
forging, stamping, and rolling, in the temperature range corresponding to red or yellow heat
(850°-1150°C)
Cold shortness occurs when a material is lowered to a temperature where it becomes brittle. 
Steel
Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials. This is due
to a wide range and combination of physical and mechanical properties that
steels can have.
Properties and Uses
Mild Steel, also known as low carbon or soft steel.
o It is ductile, malleable; tougher and more elastic than wrought iron.
o Mild steel can be forged and welded, difficult to temper and harden.
o It rusts quickly and can be permanently magnetised.
o Sp. gr. = 7.30,
o ultimate compressive and tensile strengths 800–1200N/mm2
and 600–800N/mm2.
Mild steel is used in the form of rolled sections, reinforcing
bars, roof coverings and sheet piles and in railway tracks.
Properties and Uses
High Carbon Steel, the carbon content varies from 0.55 to 1.50%. It is also
known as hard steel.
o It is tougher and more elastic than mild steel.
o It can be forged and welded with difficulty.
o Its ultimate compressive and tensile strengths are 1350 N/mm2 and 1400–
2000 N/mm2, respectively.
o Its Sp. gr. is 7.90.
High carbon steel is used for reinforcing cement concrete
and prestressed concrete members.It can take shocks and
vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts.
Properties and Uses
High Tensile Steel, the carbon content in high tensile steel is 0.6–0.8%,
manganese 0.6%,silicon 0.2%, sulphur 0.05% and phosphorus 0.05%. It is also
known as high strength steel and is essentially a medium carbon steel.
The ultimate tensile strength is of the order of 2000 N/mm2 and a minimum
elongation of 10 per cent
High Tensile steel is used in prestressed concrete construction.
Effects of Impurities
Silicon is often added to molten metal to remove oxygen and diminish blow
holes
Phosphorus is considered to promote enlargement of the grains and thus
produce brittleness.
Sulfur readily combines with iron to form iron sulphide (FeS) which, when
present in iron or steel, has a tendency to segregate and form brittle networks at
the grain boundaries.
Manganese has strong affinity for oxygen and sulphur and acts as a cleanser of
the molten metal by withdrawing much of the undesirable impurities into the
slag
Copper increases resistance to corrosion when present in small percentage.
Arsenic has a tendency to raise the strength and brittleness.
Non metallic Impurities are mechanically suspended in the metal and are often
called slag inclusions causing brittleness.
Heat Treatment
The object of heat treatment is to develop desired properties in steel. The
properties of steel can be controlled and changed as well by various heat
treatments.
Some of the principle purposes of heat treatment are as follows.
1. To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.
2. To relieve internal stresses and strains.
3. To refine the grain.
4. To remove gases.
5. To normalize steel after heat treatment.
Hardening
This heat treatment consists of heating the steel above the upper critical
temperature holding at that temperature until phase equilibrium has been
established, and then quenching rapidly to produce a martensite structure.
Martensite is a body-centered tetragonal form of iron in which some carbon is
dissolved
The objective of this treatment may be to secure a given hardness to a desired
depth in steel.
But in most instances the hardening treatment may simply be considered as
starting point from which better combinations of desired properties may be
secured by subsequent heat treatment.
Tampering
When a thick piece of steel is cooled rapidly it develops additional strains as the
surface cools quicker than the interior. To relieve this strain, steel is subjected to
the process tempering which consists in slowly heating the steel to a
predetermined subcritical temperature and then cooling it slowly.
This temperature varies from 100°C to 700°C. The higher the temperature of
tempering the softer is the product. The properties like toughness and ductility
are automatically introduced with release of strain.
Annealing
It is a general term used for heating and slow cooling of metal, glass or any other
material, which has developed strain due to rapid cooling. The process consists
of heating the steel to a temperature below the critical range, but high enough
to obtain strain recrystllization and then cooled in any manner.
Annealing of steel in addition to removing strain
introduces one or more of the following properties.
1. Introduces softness, ductility and malleability.
2. Alters electrical, magnetic and other physical properties.
3. Produces a definite microstructure and grain refinement.
4. Removes gases.
Normalizing
It consists in heating steel above critical range and cooling rapidly in air, but at
rate slower than the critical cooling rate. The purpose of this heat treatment is
to refine the grain structure resulting from rolling, forging or other
manufacturing processes.
Rolled Steel Sections
Rolled Steel Sections
Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills. Usually
sections having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas
are preferred.
Steel sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. The shapes of
the rolled steel sections available today have been developed to meet structural
needs. Cross-section and size are governed by a number of factors:
oarrangement of material for optimum structural efficiency functional requirements
odimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills,
omaterial properties which, for example, inhibit the hot rolling of wide thin
elements because of excessive warping or cracking that might occur.
Rolled Steel Sections
A T-section is designated by its depth and weight, e.g., I.S.N.T. 125 @ 268.8 N/m,
means the Tee section is 125 mm deep and the self weight is 268.8 N per metre
length.
An angle-section is designated by its leg lengths and thickness. For example,
I.S.A.40 × 25 × 6 mm means, the section is an unequal angle with legs 40 mm
and 25 mm in length and thickness of the legs 6 mm.
Steel tubes are designated by their outside diameter and self weight.
Steel flats are designated by width and thickness of the section, e.g., 30 I.S.F. 10
mm means the flat is 30 mm wide and 10 mm thick.
Rolled Steel Sections
Steel plates are designated by length, width and thickness, e.g., I.S.P.L. 2000 mm
× 1000 mm × 8 mm, means the plate is 2000 mm long, 1000 mm wide and 8 mm
thick.
Steel sheets are designated by length, width and thickness, e.g., I.S.SH. 2000
mm × 600 mm × 4 mm, means the sheet is 2000 mm long 600 mm wide and 4
mm thick.
Steel strips are designated by width and thickness, e.g., I.S.ST. 200 mm × 2 mm,
means the strip is 200 mm wide and 2 mm thick.
The round bars are generally used as reinforcement in reinforced and
forestressed concrete structures, and are dealt in details in the section to follow.
Reinforcing Steel Bars
Cement concrete is one of the most versatile and established construction
material throughout the world. Concrete being extremely weak in tension
requires reinforcement, which is in variably steel.
Steel for reinforcing bars can be classified according to its use. Even nowadays it
is as engineers friendly as before in the underdeveloped and developing
countries.
Reinforcing Steel Bars
High Yield Strength Deformed bars have lugs, ribs, or deformations on the
surface, which inhibit longitudinal movement of the bar relative to the
surrounding concrete. Thus, the deformed surface ensures better bond between
reinforcement and concrete.
HYSD bars result in a considerable increase in yield, tensile and bond strength
when twisted hot or cold.
Reinforcing Steel Bars
Thermo-mechanically Treated bars are extra high strength reinforcing bars. The
unique feature of these bars is their high fatigue resistance on dynamic loading
on account of the high strength of the surface layer.
These bars can be used for general concrete reinforcement in buildings, bridges
and various other concrete structures. They are highly recommended for use in
high-rise buildings because of the saving in steel due to the higher strength.
Reinforcing Steel Bars
Rusting and Corrosion
When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is subjected to action of atmospheric
agencies. To safeguard iron and steel from rusting and corrosion some of the
prevalent methods are:
Enamelling - consists in melting a flux on the surface of iron in muffle furnace
and then coating it with a second layer of more fusible glaze
Applying Metal Coatings - galvanizing, tin plating, electroplating
Galvanising is the process of coating iron with a thin film of zinc, whereas
in tin plating a film of tin is coated in electroplating, uses chromium,
nickel or zinc as coating
Applying Organic Coatings – painting and coal tarring
Alloy Steel
The important reasons for alloy additions are:
1. To increase the hardenability of steel. The steel in this group are usually heat
treated by quenching and tempering, for it is only this way that the added
expanse of the alloys can be justified through the better combination of
properties that is obtained.
2. To strengthen the steel when it is to be used without special heat treatment.
The steels that fall in this category are designed specifically for constructional
purposes.
3. To confer some special property such as machinability, corrosion resistance
wear resistance, etc.

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