The first step in the manufacture of iron and steel is to produce a low grade of iron in a

continuously operating furnace called a blast furnace. These furnaces are about 20 feet high
and about 50 feet in diameter. Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded continuously at the top.
Iron ore is an oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil called gangue.  Coke is
produced by heating cold to drive the impurities out. It them burn with greater heat than coal.
Limestone is a type of rock that occurs in nature. Burning the coke and supporting the
combustion with a strong blast of hot air melts the iron ore and limestone at a temperature of
about 1500°F. The heat melts the iron, frees it of oxygen, and forms carbon monoxide gas
which imparts carbon to the liquid iron.

 Melting permits separation of iron from the gangue which combines with the molten limestone
to form slag.  Iron is much heavier than slag, so there is a natural separation of the two as they
melt. Iron flows to the bottom of the furnace and molten slag floats on the iron.  Iron is removed
from at tap near the bottom and slag from a tap slightly higher. These are removed a half-
dozen times per 24 hours of operation. The iron flows into molds and allowed to solidify into
shapes called pigs, or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into steel or a better
grade of iron. In either case, the product of the blast furnace is called pig iron.

 The makeup of the iron from this process is not accurately controlled.  It contains about 4%
carbon, about 2% silicon, about 1% manganese, and about 0.05% sulfur.  It may contain up to
2% phosphorus depending on the type of ore used.

 Pig iron is not useful for construction because it is weak and brittle, although it is very hard.
The general term refers to a ferrous metal that is of a higher quality than pig iron.  To produce
useful iron or steel, a second melting is needed for further purification. In the future, iron and
steel will be produced in one operation, but it is not yet economically feasible.

It is possible to refined pig iron until it is nearly pure iron containing little more than traces of
impurities.  In this form, iron is suitable for construction. It is highly resistant to corrosion, highly
ductile, and readily machined.  It is drawn into wires and rolled into sheets of roofing, siding, and
corrugated pipe. Vitreous enamel coatings adhere well to this type of iron. Despite these
qualities, the high cost of refining prevents this type of iron from being one of the major
construction materials.

 The types of iron more common to the construction industry are gray and white cast iron,
malleable cast iron, and wrought iron. Cast iron is general term denoting ferrous metals
composed primarily of iron, carbon, and silicon, and shaped by being cast in a mold. They are
too brittle to be shape any other way. The brittleness is caused by the large amount of carbon,
which also increases strength.

 Wrought iron is highly refined iron with slag deliberately incorporated but not in chemical union
with the iron.  The slag forms one directional fibers uniformly distributed throughout the metal.
Chemical compositions of various types of iron are shown with cast still in figure 5-3.

 Pig iron is remelted in small furnaces to make the cast metals. Chemical composition is
controlled by the addition of scrap iron or steel of various kinds and of silicon and manganese
as needed.  The molten metal flows from the furnace to a ladle from which it is poured into
molds to be formed into useful shapes. This operation is called casting. The materials of which
molds are made are listed here:

 Molding sand -  a cohesive mixture of sand and clay

 This first three types of mold are used once and broken to remove the casting. The dies may be
used thousands of times.  The first two types are formed around a pattern which is usually made
of wood. For a shell mold the pattern is made of metal which is heated to solidify the mold
material.  The size of the pattern in all cases must allow for cooling shrinkage of the casting.
Patterns may be reused, weather wood or metal.

 The mold material is packed around the pattern, which has been heated in the case of a shell
mold.  Removal of the pattern leaves a mold of the desired shape. The molds, except a few very
simple one, are made in two parts and placed together for the casting.  Sometimes more than
two parts are needed and intermediate sections are placed between the upper and lower
molds.  Course are inserted to supplement the mold when necessary. A typical mode is shown
in figure 5-4. Manhole frames and covers, stormwater inlet grates, casing, fire hydrants, sinks,
and bathtubs are made of iron castings.

Iron is also cast in centrifugal molds which are of cylindrical shape with metal or sand linings. 
They are spun rapidly as the molten iron is poured, forcing the metal to the outside by
centrifugal force and causing it to solidify as a hollow cylinder.  Iron pipe for water, sewage, and
gas is made this way.

 Gray cast iron, the most widely used type of iron, has a high carbon content and contains large
numbers of graphite flakes.  The flakes give a gray appearance to a fractured surface.
Properties of grey iron include low viscosity when molten (so that fairly intricate castings can be
made), excellent machinability, high resistance to abrasion. And rather poor ductility and
toughness. Gray iron castings contain specification for gray cast iron.

 White cast iron contains its carbon completely combined with the iron.  A fractured surface
appears bright white. The advantages of white iron over grey iron are that it is harder and more
resistant to wear from abrasion. However, it is more difficult to machine, less resistant to
corrosion, more brittle, and more difficult to cast. By controlling chemical composition and
cooling rate, castings with course of gray iron and surfaces of white iron can be made. These
are called chilled iron castings.  White iron is used in machinery such as crushers, grinders,
chutes, and mixtures where resistance to abrasion is critical.

Cast iron with carbon reformed from flakes into tiny spheroid by the addition of magnesium to
the molten iron is known as ductile iron. The basic nature of the iron is not changed, except that
tensile strength, ductility, and the ability to withstand shock loads are greatly increased. The
ductile iron pipe is used for water, sewage, and gas.

 Malleable cast iron consists of white iron made tough and ductile by annealing, which consists
of heating to about 1600F, holding that temperature for a time, and cooling very slowly to about
1275F. This process requires several days. During the entire process, carbon is precipitated
from the solution as small lumps in the metal until there is no combined carbon. Some carbon
may be allowed to remain combined to increase hardness, strength, and resistance to abrasion.
There is then a loss of ductility and toughness. Brittleness is eliminated by removal of carbon
from solution, and machinability is improved by the carbon lumps. Malleable iron is used for pipe
fittings, guard rail fittings, and other items which require machining and which are subject to
require shock loads.

Wrought iron is made by refining pig iron in a furnace in a way similar to the refining of steel.
The iron silicate slag is melted, and the relatively pure molten iron is poured into the slag. A
paste a mixture of the two is  formed, with the slag evenly distributed as individual particles.
The mixture forms a semi-solid ball, which is dumped out and pressed into a rectangular block,
squeezing the excess slag out in the process. The block is rolled  to the desired shape, aligning
the slag as strings or ribbons in the direction of rolling. It is then readily sheep further by
drawing, bending, or forging, and can be made into thin, intricate shapes. It is easily welded and
machined.