Power System Operation and Control

Unit 1 ~ Introduction
A power system consists of several generating stations, where
electrical energy is generated, and several consumers for whose use the
electrical energy is generated. The objective of any power system is to
generate electrical energy in sufficient quantities at the best-suited
locations and to transmit it to the various load centers and then
distribute it to the various consumers maintaining the quality and
reliability at an economic price
Quality implies that the frequency be maintained constant at the
specified value (50 Hz in our country; though 60-Hz systems are also
prevailing in some countries) and that the voltage be maintained
constant at the specified value. Further, the interruptions to the supply
of energy should be as minimum as possible.
 Power System Operation and Control

Unit 1 ~ Introduction
One important characteristic of electric energy is that it should be
used as it is generated; otherwise it may be stated that the energy
generated must be sufficient to meet the requirements of the
consumers at all times. Because of the diversified nature of activities of
the consumers (e.g., domestic, industrial, agricultural, etc.), the load on
the system varies from instant to instant.
However, the generating station must be in a ‘state of readiness’ to
supply the load without any intimation from the consumer. This
‘variable load problem’ is to be tackled effectively ever since the
inception of a power system. This necessitates a thorough
understanding of the nature of the load to be supplied, which can be
readily obtained from the load curve, load–duration curve, etc.
 Power System Operation and Control

Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Types of Load
• Domestic load
• Commercial Load
• Industrial Load
• Municipal Load
• Irrigation load
• Traction load
 Power System Operation and Control

Unit 1 ~ Introduction

LOAD CURVE
A load curve is a plot of the load demand (on the y-axis) versus the time (on the
x-axis) in the chronological order.
From out of the load connected, a consumer uses different fractions of the total
load at various times of the day as per his/her requirements. Since a power system
has to supply load to all such consumers, the load to be supplied varies
continuously with time and does not remain constant. If the load is measured (in
units of power) at regular intervals of time, say, once in an hour (or half-an-hour)
and recorded, we can draw a curve known as the load curve.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
A time period of only 24 hours is considered, and the resulting load curve, which
is called a ‘Daily load curve’, is shown in Fig. 1.1. However, to predict the annual
requirements of energy, the occurrence of load at different hours and days in a year
and in the power supply economics, ‘Annual load curves’ are used.
An annual load curve is a plot of the load demand of the consumer against time
in hours of the year (1 year = 8,760 hours).

Fig 1.1: Daily Load Curve

 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Significance:
 From the daily load curve shown in Fig. 1.1, the following information can be
obtained:
 Observe the variation of load on the power system during different hours of
the day.
 Area under this curve gives the number of units generated in a day.
 Highest point on that curve indicates the maximum demand on the power
station on that day.
 The area of this curve divided by 24 hours gives the average load on the power
station in the day.
 It helps in selection of the rating and number of generating units required.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
LOAD–DURATION CURVE
The load–duration curve is a plot of the load demands (in units of power)
arranged in a descending order of magnitude (on the y-axis) and the time in hours
(on the x-axis). The load–duration curve can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig 1.2: Load Duration Curve

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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Base Load and Peak Load

In a power system, there may be several types of generating stations such as
hydro-electric stations, fossil-fuel-fired stations, nuclear stations, and gas-turbine-
driven generating stations. Of these stations, some act as base-load stations, while
others act as peak load stations.
Base load: It is the unvarying load that occurs almost during the whole day on the
station.
Peak load: It is the various peak demands of load over and above the base load of
the station.
Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Fig 1.3: Daily Load Curve

 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
To have a clear idea of ‘base-load’ and ‘peak load’, let us consider a power system,
the daily load curve of which is depicted in Fig. 1.3.
Base-load stations run at 100% capacity on a 24-hour basis. Nuclear reactors are
ideally suited for this purpose.
Intermediate or controlled-power generation stations normally are not fully loaded.
Hydro-electric stations are the best choice for this purpose.
Peak load stations operate during the peak load hours only. Since the gas-turbine-
driven generators can pick up the load very quickly, they are best suited to serve as
peak load stations. Where available, pumped-storage hydro-electric plants can be
operated as peak load stations.
A base-load station operates at a high-load factor, while the peak load plant
operates at a low-load factor. So, the base-load station should have low operating costs.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

DEFINITION OF TERMS AND FACTORS

Several terms are used in connection with power supply to an area, whether it be
for the first time (as is the case when the area is being electrified for the first time) or
subsequently (due to the load growth). These terms are explained below.
Connected load:
A consumer, for example, a domestic consumer, may have several appliances
rated at different wattages. The sum of these ratings is his/her connected load.
Connected load is the sum of the ratings (W, kW, or MW) of the apparatus
installed on a consumer’s premises.
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Maximum demand:
It is the maximum load used by a consumer at any time. It can be less than or
equal to the connected load. The maximum demand is usually measured in units of
kilowatts (kW) or megawatts (MW) by a maximum demand indicator.
Demand factor:
The ratio of the maximum demand to the connected load is called the ‘demand
factor’.

Note: Maximum demand and the connected load are to be expressed in the same units (W, kW, or MW).
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Average load:
If the number of kWh supplied by a station in one day is divided by 24 hours,
then the value obtained is known as the daily average load.

For daily Average load time = 24 hrs

For monthly Average load time = 30×24 hrs
For yearly Average load time = 365×24 hrs
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Load factor:
The ratio of the average demand to the maximum demand is called the load factor.

The load factor may be a daily load factor, a monthly load factor, or an annual load
factor, if the time period is considered in a day or a month or a year, respectively. Load
factor is always less than one because average load is smaller than the maximum
demand.
It plays a key role in determining the overall cost per unit generated. Higher the
load factor of the power station, lesser will be the cost per unit generated.
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Diversity factor:
Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demands of a group of
consumers to the simultaneous maximum demand of the group of consumers.

A power system supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum

demands generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore, the maximum demand
on the power system is always less than the sum of individual maximum demands of
the consumers.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

A high diversity factor implied that with a smaller maximum demand on the station,
it is possible to cater to the needs of several consumers with varying maximum
demands occurring at different hours of the day. The lesser the maximum demand, the
lesser will be the capital investment on the generators. This helps in reducing the
overall cost of the units (kWh) generated.
Thus, a higher diversity factor and a higher load factor are the desirable
characteristics of the load on a power station. The load factor can be improved by
encouraging the consumers to use power during off-peak hours with certain incentives
like offering a reduction in the cost of energy consumed during off-peak hours.
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Plant capacity:
It is the capacity or power for which a plant or station is designed. It should be
slightly more than the maximum demand. It is equal to the sum of the ratings of all the
generators in a power station.
Plant capacity factor:
It is the ratio of the average demand on the station to the maximum installed
capacity of the station.
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Utilization factor (or plant-use factor):

It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of the plant capacity and the
number of hours for which the plant was in operation.

Firm power: It is the power that should always be available even under emergency.
Prime power: It is the maximum power (may be thermal or hydraulic or mechanical)
continuously available for conversion into electric power.
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Dump power: This is the term usually used in hydro-electric plants and it
represents the power in excess of the load requirements. It is made
available by surplus water.
Spill power: It is the power that is produced during floods in a hydro-power
station.
Cold reserve: It is the reserve-generating capacity that is not in operation, but can
be made available for service.
Hot reserve: It is the reserve-generating capacity that is in operation, but not in
service.
Spinning reserve: It is the reserve-generating capacity that is connected to bus bars
and is ready to take the load.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.1:
A generating station has a maximum demand of 35 MW and has a connected load
of 60 MW. The annual generation of units is 24 × 107 kWh. Calculate the load factor and
the demand factor.
Solution:
No. of units generated annually = 24 × 107 kWh
No. of hours in a year (assuming 365 days in a year) = 365 × 24 = 8,760 hours
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Average load on the station

Load Factor

Demand factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.2:
A generating station supplies four feeders with the maximum demands (in MW) of
16, 10, 12, and 7 MW. The overall maximum demand on the station is 20 MW and the
annual load factor is 45%. Calculate the diversity factor and the number of units
generated annually.
Solution:
Sum of maximum demands = 16 + 10 + 12 + 7 = 45 MW
Simultaneous maximum demand = 20 MW
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Diversity factor

Average demand = (maximum demand) × (load factor)

No. of units generated annually = 9 × 8,760 = 78,840 MWh

 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Alternatively,
Annual load factor

i.e,

so that the number of units generated annually

= 0.45 × 20 × 8,760 MWh = 78,840 MWh
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.3:
The yearly load–duration curve of a power plant is a straight line (Fig 1.4). The
maximum load is 30 MW and the minimum load is 20 MW. The capacity of the plant is
35 MW. Calculate the plant capacity factor, the load factor, and the utilization factor.

Fig 1.4: Load Duration Curve

 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Solution:
No. of units generated per year = Area OACD = Area OBCD + Area BAC

Average annual load

Load factor
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Plant capacity factor

Utilization factor

Alternatively,
Utilization factor
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.4:
Calculate the total annual energy generated, if the maximum demand on a power
station is 120 MW and the annual load factor is 50 %.
Solution:
Maximum demand on a power station = 120 MW, Annual load factor = 50 %
Load factor

Energy generated/annum = maximum demand × LF × hours in a year

= (120 × 103) × (0.5) × (24 × 365) = 526.6 x 106 kWh
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.5:
Determine the demand factor and the load factor of a generating station, which has
a connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of 25 MW, the units generated
being 40 × 106/annum.
Solution:
Connected load = 50 MW, Maximum demand = 25 MW
Units generated = 40 × 106/annum
Demand factor
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Average demand

Load factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.6:
Calculate the annual load factor of a 120 MW power station, which delivers 110
MW for 4 hours, 60 MW for 10 hours, and is shut down for the rest of each day. For
general maintenance, it is shut down for 60 days per annum.
Solution:
Capacity of power station = 120 MW
Power delivered = 110 MW for 4 hours
= 60 MW for 10 hours
= 0 for the rest of each day
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

And for general maintenance, it is shut down for 60 days per annum.
Energy supplied in 1 day = (110 × 4) + (60 × 10) = 1,040 MWh
No. of working days in a year = 365 − 60 = 305
Energy supplied per year = 1,040 × 305 = 317,200 MWh
Annual load factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.7:
Customer-connected loads are 10 lamps of 60 W each and two heaters of 1,500 W
each. His/her maximum demand is 2 kW. On average, he/she uses 10 lamps, 7 hours a
day, and each heater for 5 hours a day. Determine his/her: (i) average load, (ii) monthly
energy consumption, and (iii) load factor.
Solution:
Maximum demand = 2 kW, Connected load = 10 × 60 + 2 × 1,500 = 3,600 W
Daily energy consumption = number of lamps used × wattage of each lamp ×
working hours per day + number of heaters × wattage of each heater × working hours
per day = 10 × 60 × 7 + 2 × 1,500 × 5 = 19.2 kWh
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

1. Average load

2. Monthly energy consumption = daily energy consumption × no. of days in a month

= 19.2 × 30 = 576 kWh
= 576 kWh
3. Monthly load factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.8:
The maximum demand on a generating station is 20 MW, a load factor of 75%, a
plant capacity factor of 50%, and a plant-use factor of 80%. Calculate the following:
1. daily energy generated,
2. reserve capacity of the plant,
3. maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were in use all the
time.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Solution:

Maximum demand, MD = 20 MW
Load factor, LF = 75%
Power capacity factor = 50%
Plant-use factor = 80%
Average load = MD × LF
= 20 × 0.75 = 15 MW
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

1. Daily energy generated = average load × 24 = 15 × 24 = 360 MWh

2. Power station installed capacity

Plant reserve capacity = installed capacity − maximum demand

= 30 − 20 = 10 MW
3. The maximum energy that can be produced daily if the plant is running all the time
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.9:
A certain power station’s annual load duration curve is a straight line from 25 to 5
MW (Fig 1.5). To meet this load, three turbine-generator units, two rated at 15 MW
each and one rated at 7.5 MW are installed. Calculate the following:
1. installed capacity;
2. plant factor;
3. units generated per annum;
4. Utilization factor.

Fig 1.5: Load Duration Curve

 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Solution:
1. Installed capacity = 2 × 15 + 7.5 = 37.5 MW
2. From the load duration curve shown in Fig 1.5,
Average demand
Plant factor
3. Units generated per annum = area (in kWh) under load–duration curve

4. Utilization factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.10:
A consumer has a connected load of 12 lamps each of 100 W at his/ her premises.
His/ her load demand is as follows:
From midnight to 5 AM : 200 W
5 AM to 6 PM : no load
6 PM to 7 PM. : 700 W
7 PM to 9 PM : 1,000 W
9 PM to midnight : 500 W
Draw the load curve and calculate the (i) energy consumption during 24 hours, (ii)
average load, (iii) demand factor, (iv) maximum demand, and (v) load factor.
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Solution:
From Fig. 1.6,
1. Electrical energy consumption during the day = area of load curve
= 200 × 5 + 700 × 1 + 1,000 × 2 + 500 × 3 = 5,200 Wh = 5.2 kWh
2. Average load

3. Demand factor
4. Maximum demand = 1,000 W
5. Load factor
Fig 1.6: Load curve
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.11:
Calculate the diversity factor and the annual load factor of a generating station,
which supplies loads to various consumers as follows:
Industrial consumer = 2,000 kW;
Commercial establishment = 1,000 kW
Domestic power = 200 kW;
Domestic light = 500 kW
and assume that the maximum demand on the station is 3,000 kW, and the
number of units produced per year is 50×105.
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Solution:

Load industrial consumer = 2,000 kW

Load commercial establishment = 1,000 kW
Domestic power load = 200 kW
Domestic lighting load = 500 kW
Maximum demand on the station = 3,000 kW
Number of kWh generated per year = 50 × 105
 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction
Diversity factor

Average demand

Load factor
 Power System Operation and Control
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.12:
Calculate the reserve capacity of a generating station, which has a maximum
demand of 20,000 kW, the annual load factor is 65%, and the capacity factor is 45 %.
Solution:
Maximum demand = 20,000 kW
Annual load factor = 65%
Capacity factor = 45%
Energy generated/annum = maximum demand LF hours in a year
= (20,000) × (0.65) × (8,760) kWh = 113.88 × 106 kWh
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Capacity factor

Hence,
Plant capacity

Reserve capacity = plant capacity − maximum demand

= 28,888.89 − 20,000 = 8,888.89 kW
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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.13: The maximum demand on a power station is 600 MW, the annual load
factor is 60%, and the capacity factor is 45%. Find the reserve capacity of the plant.
Solution:

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand = 800 – 600 = 200 MW

 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.14: A power station’s maximum demand is 50 MW, the capacity factor is 0.6,
and the utilization factor is 0.85. Calculate the following: (i) annual energy produced
and (ii) reserve capacity.
Solution:

Energy generated/annum = maximum demand × load factor × hours in a year

             = 50 × 0.7058 × 8,760 = 309,228 MWh

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand = – 50 = 8.82 MW

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Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.15: A power station is to feed four regions of load whose peak loads are 12,
7, 10, and 8 MW. The diversity factor at the station is 1.4 and the average annual load
factor is 65%. Determine the following: (i) maximum demand on the station, (ii) annual
energy supplied by the station, and (iii) suggest the installed capacity.
Solution:

Energy generated per annum = maximum demand × load factor × hours in a year
             = 50 × 0.7058 × 8,760 = 309,228 MWh

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity – Maximum demand = – 50 = 8.82 MW

 Power System Operation and Control
 
Unit 1 ~ Introduction

Example 1.15: A power station is to feed four regions of load whose peak loads are 12, 7,
10, and 8 MW. The diversity factor at the station is 1.4 and the average annual load factor
is 65%. Determine the following: (i) maximum demand on the station, (ii) annual energy
supplied by the station, and (iii) suggest the installed capacity.
Solution:
(i)
(ii) Units generated/annum = max. demand × LF × hours (year) = 26.43 × 0.65 × 8,760 = 150,492.42 MWh

(iii) The installed capacity of the station should be 15% to 20% more than the maximum demand in order to
meet the future growth of load. Taking the installed capacity to be 20% more than the maximum
demand, suggested installed capacity = 1.2 × max. Demand = 1.2 × 26.43 = 31.716 ≅ 32 MW