Week - 08 (Condensor, Evaporator and Expansion Devices)

ME 331
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

M Asfandyar
Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 1

Refrigeration System Components
 Functioning and types of:
 compressors,
 condensers
 evaporators,
 expansion valves.

Condensers and Evaporators
Introduction
• Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the

refrigerant undergoes a phase change.
Classification of Condensers
Based on the external fluid, condensers can be classified as:
o Air cooled condensers (plate surface type or finned tube type using either
natural convection or forced convection)
o Water cooled condensers (Types: tube-in-tube, shell-and-tube, shell-and-coil)
o Evaporative condensers (combine the features of a cooling tower and water-

cooled
condenser in a single unit.)

Introduction
 The refrigerant may leave the condenser as a saturated or a sub-cooled liquid,
depending upon the temperature of the external medium and design of the condenser.
 In actual refrigeration systems with a finite pressure drop in the condenser or in a

system using a zeotropic refrigerant mixture, the temperature of the refrigerant changes
during the condensation process.
 The temperature profile of the external fluid, which is assumed to undergo only
sensible heat transfer, is shown by dashed line.
 The heat rejection process is
represented by 2-3’-3-4.
 2-3’ is a sensible, de-superheating
process
 3’-3 is the condensation process
 3-4 is a sensible, sub cooling
process, during which the
refrigerant temperature
drops from T3 to T4.

Air cooled condensers
1. Natural convection type:
 The heat transfer from the condenser is

by buoyancy induced natural convection
and radiation.
 Since the flow rate of air is small and the
radiation heat transfer is also not very high,
the combined heat transfer coefficient in these
condensers is small.
 As a result a relatively large condensing
surface
is required to reject a given amount of heat.
 these condensers are used for small capacity
refrigeration systems like household
refrigerators and freezers.
 The natural convection type condensers are
either plate surface type or finned tube
type.
w
i
Air cooled condensers
2. Forced convection type:
 In this type of condensers, the circulation of air over the condenser surface is
maintained by using a fan or a blower.
 The current practice in the forced convection type is to use 10 – 15 𝑚 2 of the total
surface
area per ton of refrigeration based on 2 – 5 m/s face velocity of air over the coil.
 These condensers are used in

systems up to 5 TR
capacity.
 The moist air flows over the fins

while the refrigerant flows inside
 Forced convection type
the tubes.
condensers are commonly used in
window air conditioners, water
coolers and packaged air
Plate-fin type condenser
conditioning plants.
Water cooled condensers
1. Double Pipe or Tube-in-Tube type:
 Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR capacity.
 The cold water flows through the inner tube,

while the refrigerant flows through the annulus in
counter flow.
 The refrigerant in the annulus rejects a part of

its heat to the surroundings by free convection
and radiation.
 The heat transfer coefficient is usually low

because of poor liquid refrigerant drainage if
the tubes are long.
tube-in-tube type condenser

2. Shell and Coil type:
 These condensers are used in systems up to 50 TR capacity.
 The refrigerant flows through the shell.
 The water flows through multiple coils, which

may have fins to increase the heat transfer
coefficient.
 In smaller capacity condensers, refrigerant flows

through coils while water flows through the
shell.
Shell and coil type condenser

3. Shell and Tube type condenser type:
 This is the most common type of condenser used in systems from 2 TR upto thousands
of TR capacity.
 In these condensers the refrigerant flows through the shell while water flows through the
tubes in single to four passes.
 The condensed refrigerant collects at
the bottom of the shell.
 The coldest water contacts the liquid
refrigerant so that some sub-cooling can
also be obtained.
 The most common type is horizontal
shell type.
 Vertical shell-and-tube type condensers
are usually used with ammonia in
large capacity systems so that cleaning
of the tubes is possible from top while
the plant is running. Horizontal shell and Tube type condenser
Evaporative condensers
 In evaporative condensers, both air and water are used to extract heat from the
condensing refrigerant.
 Evaporative condensers combine the features of a cooling tower and water-cooled
condenser in a single unit.
 In these condensers, the water is sprayed
from top part on a bank of tubes carrying
the refrigerant and air is induced
upwards.
 The heat transfer coefficient for

evaporative cooling is very large.
 The water spray countercurrent to the

airflow acts as cooling tower. The role
of air is primarily to increase the rate of
evaporation of water.
 Evaporative condensers are used in
places where water is scarce. An evaporative condenser
Air cooled vs water cooled condensers
Some Salient features of air cooled and water cooled condensers

are:
Parameter Air cooled Water cooled

Temperature difference, 6 to 22 ºC 6 to 12 ºC
𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
Volume flow rate of 12 to 20 𝑚 3/𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.007 to 0.02 𝑚3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
coolant per TR
Heat transfer area per 10 to 15 𝑚 2 0.5 to 1.0 𝑚 2
TR
Face Velocity 1.5 to 6 m/s 2 to 3 m/s
Fan or pump power per 75 to 100 W Negligible

TR

Analysis of Condensers
The total heat rejected in the condenser, Q is given by:
Where 𝑚 is the mass flow rate of refrigerant

ℎ2 , ℎ4 are the inlet and exit enthalpies of refrigerant
𝑚 𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 is the mass flow rate of the external fluid
𝐶 𝑝,𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 is an average specific heat of the external fluid
𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡,𝑖 and 𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡,𝑜 are the inlet and exit temperature of the external fluid
The required condenser area is then given by the equation:
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

A is the heat transfer area of the condenser, and
ΔT𝑚 is mean temperature difference between refrigerant and external fluid
 In a typical design problem, the final objective is to find the heat transfer area A
required from given input.
 To find heat transfer area, one should know the amount of heat transfer rate across the
condenser (𝑄𝑐 ), the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and the mean temperature
difference. The heat transfer rate in the condenser depends on the refrigeration
capacity of the system and system COP.
 The overall heat transfer coefficient depends on the type and design of condenser.
 The mean temperature difference depends on the operating temperature of

the refrigeration system, type of the condenser and the external fluid.
 In a typical rating problem, the objective is to find the rate of heat transfer
when other
parameters are fixed.

Condenser Heat Rejection Ratio (HRR):
The heat rejection ratio (HRR) is the ratio of heat rejected to the heat
absorbed (refrigeration capacity), that is,
 For a fixed condenser temperature, as the evaporator temperature decreases the

COP decreases and heat rejection ratio increases.
 For fixed evaporator temperature as the condenser temperature increases the

COP decreases hence the heat rejection ratio increases.

Mean temperature difference:
 The mean temperature difference ΔT 𝑚 , between the refrigerant and the

external fluid varies continuously along the length.
 the heat transfer coefficient on the refrigerant side, ℎ𝑟 is small during de-
superheating (2-3) in vapour phase but temperature difference between
refrigerant and coolant ΔT is high.
 During condensation (3-3’) the heat transfer
coefficient on refrigerant side is large and the
temperature difference is small.
 As a result, the product ℎ𝑟 ΔT is approximately

same in both the regions; hence as an
approximation one may design the condenser
by assuming that condensation occurs
throughout the condenser.

Mean temperature difference:

 However, for accurate design of condenser, one has to consider the de-superheating,
condensation and subcooling regions separately and evaluate the area required for
each region, and finally find the total area.
 If we assume condensation throughout the

length of the condenser and also assume the
pressure drop to be negligible, then the
mean temperature difference is given by the
Log Mean Temperature Difference
(LMTD):

Overall heat transfer coefficient:
 Evaluation of overall heat transfer coefficient, U is an important step in the design of a
condenser. The overall heat transfer coefficient can be based on either internal area
(𝐴 𝑖external
or ) area (𝐴 𝑜 ) of the condenser.
ℎ𝑜 𝐴
film1 𝑜
Tube wall
Condensing 𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥𝑚
Scale (Fouling)
1
Water film ℎ𝑓 𝐴 𝑖
1 1 ∆𝑥 1 1
Thermal resistance: 𝑅 = = + + + 1
𝑈 0𝐴 0 ℎ0 𝐴 0 𝑘𝐴 𝑚 ℎ𝑓 𝐴 𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑖
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 𝑖
𝑈0 =overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the
ℎ𝑖= water-side coefficient of heat transfer
outside surface area 𝐴 𝑚 = Mean tube surface area
ℎ𝑜 = Condensing film coefficient of heat transfer
𝐴 𝑖 = Inside or water-side area
𝐴 𝑜 = Outside or refrigerant side area k = Thermal conductivity of the tube material.
∆𝑥= Thickness of the metal-tube wall
ℎ𝑓 = Coefficient of heat transfer through the scale
Augmentation of Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient:
 The overall heat-transfer coefficient such as 𝑈0, always has a value lower than the
lower of the two film coefficients (ℎ0 & ℎ𝑖 ).
 A familiar way to decrease the resistance (R) is to provide an extended surface or
fins on the side of the lower heat transfer coefficient.
 In shell-and-tube condensers the water-side coefficient of the order of 6000
W𝑚 −2𝐾 −1. Whereas a typical value of the condensing coefficient for ammonia is
8000 W𝑚 −2 𝐾 −1.
 And the same for R12 and R22 is of the order of 1500 W𝑚 −2𝐾 −1 only.
 Thus in R12 and R22 condensers, it is

desirable to use fins on the refrigerant side.
 A recommended configuration is with one fin per

mm having height of approximately 1.5 mm (by
ACME industries, USA)

Optimum condenser pressure for lowest running cost:
 The total running cost of a refrigeration system is the sum of costs of compressor
power and the cost of water.
 The cost of water can be the cost of municipal water or the cost of running a cooling
tower.
 The compressor power increases as the condenser temperature or the pressure increases
for fixed evaporator temperature.
 It is observed that there is a

condenser pressure at which the
running cost is minimum and it is
recommended that the system
should be run at this pressure.

Evaporators
An evaporator, like condenser is also a heat exchanger. In an evaporator, the refrigerant

boils
or evaporates and in doing so absorbs heat from the substance being refrigerated.
Classification of Evaporators
Classification based on heat transfer process or refrigerant flow or condition of

heat transfer surface.
o Natural and Forced Convection Type

o Refrigerant Flow Inside or Outside Tubes
o Flooded and Dry Type
Based on construction:
o Shell-and-Tube,
o Shell-and-Coil,
o fin-and-tube,
o pipe-in-pipe,
o plate-surface,
o plate type.
Evaporators
Flooded and Dry Type:

 Evaporator is said to be flooded type if liquid refrigerant covers the entire heat
transfer surface.
 An evaporator is called dry type when a portion of the evaporator is used for
superheating the refrigerant vapour after its evaporation.
 The compressor directly draws the flash
vapour formed during expansion (take no
part in refrigeration).
 The vapour is separated as it enters the
surge drum.
 The mass flow rate in the evaporator
tubes is f.𝑚 where is the mass flow rate
through the expansion valve and 𝑚 is
mass flow rate to the compressor.
 The term f call circulation factor

Evaporators
Flooded Type Shell-and-Tube Type Evaporator
 The refrigerant is fed through a float valve, which maintains a constant level of
liquid refrigerant in the shell.
 The shell is not filled entirely with tubes to maintain liquid refrigerant level below
the top of the shell.
 Shell-and-tube evaporators can be either single pass type or multipass type.
 In multipass type, the chilled liquid changes direction in the heads.
 At the inlet to tubes at the top a special arrangement introduces swirling action
to increase the heat transfer coefficient.

Evaporators
Direct Expansion Type Shell-and-Tube Type Evaporator
 The refrigerant flowing through the tubes and water flowing through the shell.
 The liquid to be chilled flows through the shell around the baffles.
 The presence of baffles turns the flow around creating some turbulence
thereby increasing the heat transfer coefficient.
 This evaporator is of dry type since some of the tubes superheat the vapour.
 Widely spaced baffles are used when the flow rate is high or the liquid viscosity is
high.

Evaporators
Pool Boiling:
 In evaporators boiling of refrigerant may take place outside tubes or inside tubes.
When boiling takes place outside the tubes (flooded type ) it is called as pool boiling.
 For a small temperature difference, the heat transfer from the surface is driven by free
convection.
 As the temperature
difference increases,
bubbles start to form
at selected nucleation
sites.
 Radiation heat
transfer takes place
during film
boiling.
Pool Boiling curve

Accessories and Controls
• Used to control and enhance system performance, safety or for servicing. Some
examples are:
• Receiver, Filter-drier, Oil separator, Liquid-suction heat exchanger etc.

Expansion Devices
Introduction
Main function:
1. Reduce pressure from condenser pressure to evaporator pressure,
2. Regulate the refrigerant flow from the high-pressure liquid line into the evaporator
at a rate equal to the evaporation rate in the evaporator
 Ideally, the mass flow rate of refrigerant in the system should be proportional to
the cooling load.
 The mass flow rate has to be controlled in such a manner that only
superheated vapour leaves the evaporator.
 These devices should operate in such a way that the energy requirement is
minimum
and the required criterion of temperature and cooling load are satisfied.

Expansion Devices
Introduction
The expansion devices used in refrigeration systems can be divided into fixed
opening
type or variable opening type.
Classification of Expansion Devices
1. Hand (manual) expansion valves

2. Capillary Tubes (Fixed opening area)
3. Orifice (Fixed opening area)
4. Constant pressure or Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV)
5. Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TEV)
6. Float type Expansion Valve
I. High Side Float Valve
II. Low Side Float Valve
7. Electronic Expansion Valve

Expansion Devices
Capillary Tube
A capillary tube is a long, narrow tube of constant diameter. Typical tube diameters of
refrigerant capillary tubes range from 0.5 mm to 3 mm and the length ranges from 1.0 m
to 6 m.
Factors of pressure reduction:
1. The refrigerant has to overcome the frictional

resistance offered by tube walls. This leads to some
pressure drop,
2. The velocity of refrigerant increases as it evaporates

while flowing across the tube since = ρVA. The
increase in velocity or acceleration of the
refrigerant also requires pressure drop.
Its mass flow rate is totally dependent upon the pressure

difference across it; it cannot adjust itself to variation
of load effectively.
Expansion Devices
Capillary Tube
Balance Point of Compressor and Capillary Tube :

 The compressor and the capillary tube, under steady state must arrive at some suction and
discharge pressures, which allows the same mass flow rate through the compressor and the
capillary tube. This state is called the balance point.
 The mass flow rate through the compressor

decreases if the pressure ratio increases since the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor decreases.
 While mass flow rate through the capillary

tube increases with increase in pressure
difference across it.
 There is a definite value of evaporator pressure at

which the mass flow rates through the
compressor and the capillary tube are the same.

Expansion Devices
Capillary Tube
Effect of Load Variation:

 It is possible for the load to increase or decrease. This variation of load affects the
operation of compressor and capillary tube and affects the balance point between
them.
Increase in refrigeration Load:
 If the refrigeration load increases, there is a tendency for the evaporator temperature
to increase due to higher rate of evaporation.
 As the load increases, the evaporator temperature rises
to C.
 At point C the mass flow rate through compressor is more
than the mass flow rate through the capillary tube.
 This will lead to starving of the evaporator.
 However, the system will take some corrective action
since changes are occurring in the condenser also.
 The system will find a new balance point at

higher condenser temperature.
Expansion Devices
Capillary Tube

 It is possible for the load to increase or decrease. This variation of load affects the
operation of compressor and capillary tube and affects the balance point between
them.
Decrease in refrigeration Load:
 If the refrigeration load decreases, there is a tendency for the evaporator temperature
to decrease, point A.
 In this condition the capillary tube feeds more refrigerant

to the evaporator than the compressor can remove.
 This leads to accumulation of liquid refrigerant in

the evaporator causing flooding of the evaporator.
 The system has to take some corrective action.

Expansion Devices
Capillary Tube
Advantages and Disadvantages
S.no Advantages S.no Disadvantages
1 Inexpensive 1 Relatively low COP, since it cannot

adjust itself to changing flow
2 No moving parts (no condition
maintenance) 2 Susceptible to clogging because of
3 Low starting torque narrow bore of the tube
3 The evaporator may get flooded
4 Ideal for hermetic compressors and the liquid refrigerant may
(factory assembled) flow to compressor and damage it
when it starts.

Expansion Devices
Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV)
 Also known as a constant pressure expansion valve acts in such a manner so as to
maintain a constant pressure and thereby a constant temperature in the
evaporator.
 temperature
The valve consists of an adjustment spring that can be adjusted to maintain the
in the evaporator.
required 𝐹𝑠= force exerted on the top of the diaphragm.
𝐹𝑜= force exerted by atmospheric pressure.
𝐹𝑒+ 𝐹𝑓𝑠 > 𝐹𝑠+ 𝐹𝑜→the valve will be
𝐹𝑒 = force exerted by the condensser pressure.
fully closed.
𝐹𝑓𝑠= force exerted by follow-up spring .
𝐹𝑒+ 𝐹𝑓𝑠< +𝐹𝑜→the valve will be
open.

Expansion Devices
 During off-cycle the valve is closed, that is, the needle is pushed against the orifice.
as;
Such
𝐹 +𝐹
> 𝐹𝑠𝑜+ 𝐹𝑜
𝑒𝑜 𝑓𝑠𝑜
 The refrigerant remaining in the evaporator will
vaporize but will not be taken out by the compressor,
as a result the evaporator pressure rises during the
off-cycle
 When the compressor is started after the off-cycle
period, the evaporator pressure 𝑃𝑒starts decreasing at
a very fast rate since valve is closed
𝐹𝑒𝑜 + 𝐹𝑓𝑠𝑜 = 𝐹𝑠𝑜+ 𝐹𝑜= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

→ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Onwards, the valve acts in such a
manner that the evaporator pressure
remains constant as long as the
refrigeration load is constant.
 At this point, the mass flow rate
through the valve is the same as
that
through the compressorRefrigeration & Air Conditioning 34
Expansion Devices
 The mass flow rate through the valve is directly proportional to the pressure drop
through the orifice (𝑃𝑐–𝑃𝑒) and the area of the orifice opening (needle position).
At constant condenser pressure the mass flow rate will decrease if the evaporator
pressure 𝑃𝑒increases or as the orifice opening becomes narrower.
 If the refrigeration load decreases, there is a

tendency in the evaporator for the
evaporator temperature to decrease hence
the mass flow rate through the valve
increases.
 This is opposite of the requirement since at

lower load, a lower mass flow rate of the
refrigerant is required. This is the drawback
of this valve that it counteracts in an opposite
manner since it tries to keep the evaporator
pressure at a constant value.
Expansion Devices
Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TEV)
 Thermostatic expansion valve is the most versatile expansion valve and is
most commonly used in refrigeration systems.
 A thermostatic expansion valve maintains a constant degree of superheat at the exit
of evaporator.
 Hence it is most effective for dry evaporators in preventing the slugging of the
compressors
 This consists of a feeler bulb that is attached
to the evaporator exit tube so that it senses
the temperature at the exit of evaporator.
 The feeler bulb is connected to the top of

the bellows by a capillary tube.
 The feeler bulb and the narrow tube

contain some fluid that is called power
fluid.
 The pressure of the power fluid 𝑃𝑝is the

saturation pressure corresponding to the
Refrigerationexit.
temperature at the evaporator & Air Conditioning 36
Expansion Devices
 If the load on the plant increases, the degree of superheat increases, pressure of power
fluid 𝑃𝑝increases, the needle stand is pushed down and the mass flow rate of refrigerant
increases. This is the ideal case.
 On the other hand, if the load on the plant decreases, the evaporation rate of refrigerant
decreases, as a result the degree of superheat decreases. The thermostatic expansion
valve reacts in such a way so as to reduce the mass flow rate through it.
 Hence, this valve always establishes balanced flow condition of flow between
compressor
and itself.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oS
L OHCOw3yg

Expansion Devices
TEV with cross charge
 The difference between 𝑃𝑝and 𝑃𝑒is proportional to the spring force, 𝐹𝑠
 It is observed that at location A, the degree of superheat is very large whereas at location C
the degree of superheat is very small for the same spring force setting proportional to (𝑃𝑝–
𝑃𝑒).
 It is observed that if the spring is set for say a superheat of 10oC at –40oC evaporator
temperature, the degree of superheat will become almost zero at higher
temperature.
 As a result; when the plant is started at warm temperature, there is a possibility of

flooding of
evaporator.
 If degree of superheat is set to avoid

flooding at say 5oC, then at the design point
of say – 40oC, the superheat will be very
large and it will starve the evaporator.

Expansion Devices
TEV with cross charge:
 This can be corrected if a fluid different from refrigerant is used in the feeler bulb as
power fluid. Such a TEV is called TEV with cross charge.
 The projection for 𝑃𝑝is taken from the saturation line for power fluid and it shows the
temperature at the exit of the evaporator.
 The power fluid is such that at any temperature it has lower saturation pressure than that
of the refrigerant in the system, so that as the evaporator temperature increases the degree
of superheat increases.
 It is observed that for the two different locations A

and B, the degree of superheat is almost same for
all evaporator temperatures. Hence cross charge
helps in maintaining the same degree of superheat
at all evaporator temperatures.

Expansion Devices
TEV With External Pressure Equalizer:
 The pressure drop of the refrigerant is quite significant in large evaporators.

 Thermostatic expansion valve maintains 𝐹𝑝– 𝐹𝑒= 𝐴𝐵(𝑃𝑝 – 𝑃𝑒) at a constant value equal to
spring force.
 The pressure 𝑃𝑝is the saturation pressure at (𝑇𝑒 + Δ𝑇𝑠) while 𝑃𝑒is saturation pressure at 𝑇𝑒
. In a large evaporator, due to pressure drop Δ𝑃𝑒, the pressure at exit is say, 𝑃𝑒- Δ𝑃𝑒and
corresponding saturation temperature at exit of evaporator is 𝑇𝑒-Δ𝑇𝑒 .
 Therefore, effective superheat at

evaporator exit is 𝑇𝑠+Δ𝑇𝑒.
 This may become very large and may
result in low COP and lower volumetric
efficiency of compressor.
 To correct for this, TEV is provided with a
tapping, which feeds the pressure 𝑃𝑒−Δ𝑃𝑒.
from evaporator exit to the bottom of
bellows. This will result in a degree of
superheat equal to the set value Δ𝑇𝑠.
Reference:
NPTEL
Links:
http://nptel.ac.in/downloads/112105129/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSLOHCOw3yg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXiV5YzTZQ4

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ME 331

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 1

 Functioning and types of:

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 2

• Condensers and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in which the

Based on the external fluid, condensers can be classified as:

o Water cooled condensers (Types: tube-in-tube, shell-and-tube, shell-and-coil)

o Evaporative condensers (combine the features of a cooling tower and water-

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 3

 In actual refrigeration systems with a finite pressure drop in the condenser or in a

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning 4

1. Natural convection type:

 The heat transfer from the condenser is

2. Forced convection type:

 These condensers are used in

 The moist air flows over the fins

1. Double Pipe or Tube-in-Tube type:

 Double pipe condensers are normally used up to 10 TR capacity.

 The cold water flows through the inner tube,

 The refrigerant in the annulus rejects a part of

 The heat transfer coefficient is usually low

tube-in-tube type condenser

2. Shell and Coil type:

 These condensers are used in systems up to 50 TR capacity.

 The refrigerant flows through the shell.

 The water flows through multiple coils, which

 In smaller capacity condensers, refrigerant flows

Shell and coil type condenser

3. Shell and Tube type condenser type:

 The heat transfer coefficient for

 The water spray countercurrent to the

Some Salient features of air cooled and water cooled condensers

Parameter Air cooled Water cooled

Fan or pump power per 75 to 100 W Negligible

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The total heat rejected in the condenser, Q is given by:

Where 𝑚 is the mass flow rate of refrigerant

The required condenser area is then given by the equation:

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient

 The mean temperature difference depends on the operating temperature of

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Condenser Heat Rejection Ratio (HRR):

 For a fixed condenser temperature, as the evaporator temperature decreases the

 For fixed evaporator temperature as the condenser temperature increases the

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Mean temperature difference:

 The mean temperature difference ΔT 𝑚 , between the refrigerant and the

 As a result, the product ℎ𝑟 ΔT is approximately

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Mean temperature difference:

 If we assume condensation throughout the

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 Thus in R12 and R22 condensers, it is

 A recommended configuration is with one fin per

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Optimum condenser pressure for lowest running cost:

 It is observed that there is a

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