RICE

Dr. Noor Aina Mohd Nazri

Introduction

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or
Oryzaglaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely
consumed staple food for a large part of the world's human population,
especially in Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest
worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize.
Using good seed leads to lower seeding rates, higher crop emergence,
reduced replanting, more uniform plant stands, and more vigorous early
crop growth. Before rice can be planted, the soil should be in the best
physical condition for crop growth and the soil surface is level. Land
preparation involves plowing and harrowing to ‘till’ or dig-up, mix and
level the soil.

Prior to planting rice, rice growers must ensure their farm meets the strict
environmental guidelines for rice production. Once approved, many
farmers design a whole farm plan to assist in managing the efficient use of
natural resources and to determine the most suitable rotations.
 Many rice growers have already invested in designing whole farm plans.

Planting the crop on time will help produce a fast-growing, uniform crop
that will have higher yields and will be better able to compete with weeds
and pests. The best time to plant depends on the locality, variety, water
availability, and the best harvest time. Rice can either be transplanted
from a nursery or direct-seeded in the field.

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 Many rice growers have already invested in designing whole farm plans.

Planting the crop on time will help produce a fast-growing, uniform crop
that will have higher yields and will be better able to compete with weeds
and pests. The best time to plant depends on the locality, variety, water
availability, and the best harvest time. Rice can either be transplanted
from a nursery or direct-seeded in the field.

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There are four main parts of a rice grain. A grain of rice is
a seed that contains an embryonic rice plant, stored food
and a protective coat. The husk (hull) is the outer straw-
like protective covering that surrounds the entire grain. It
is inedible and must be removed before the grain can be
seen. Under the husk is the bran (germ). The germ is the
plant embryo from which a plant emerges. The bran
layers include layers of fibrous tissue with protein,
vitamins, minerals and oil. Endosperm is found beneath
the bran layers.

The white endosperm is made of complex carbohydrates

(starch), the energy source used by the germinating rice
plant. The endosperm is also the largest portion of the
rice grain. The bran, germ and endosperm are the edible
portions of the grain. In the milling process, the inedible
husk is removed to make brown rice. If the rice is further
milled to remove the bran and germ, the result is white
rice
Nutritional Benefits
Rice is an excellent food to help keep your body healthy.
Rice has the following nutritional benefits:

•Excellent source of carbohydrates

•Good energy source
•Low fat
•Low salt
•Cholesterol free
•Low sugar
•Gluten free
•Additives free
•Preservative free
• Good nutrition is vital to everyday performance, and eating more
carbohydrate -rich foods means having more energy. Rice is an
excellent source of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to
fuel working muscles and feeds the brain to enhance concentration.

Carbohydrates are not normally converted to body fat, as they are the
body's preferred source of energy. Carbohydrates are broken down to
glucose, most of which is used as energy for exercise and as essential
fuel for the brain.
• The Australian Dietary Guidelines recommend we eat plenty of breads
and cereals (preferably whole grain). Rice is an excellent food to
include in a balanced diet. It is low in total fat and saturated fat, is
cholesterol free, and contains negligible amounts of sodium.

Being low in fat, rice is suitable to be included in a diet for those

watching their weight. Rice is also cholesterol free, therefore is an
excellent food to include in a cholesterol - lowering diet. This benefit
is even more evident in brown rice which also contains many other
beneficial nutrients, vitamins and minerals that contribute to good
health
• Some people are unable to tolerate the proteins found in wheat,
barley, rye, oats and triticale. These people choose foods that are
gluten free. All rice is gluten free, making it the choice for people with
gluten-free dietary requirements.
• Rice contains no additives or preservatives, making it an excellent
inclusion in a healthy and balanced diet. Rice also contains resistant
starch, which reaches the bowel undigested. This encourages the
growth of beneficial bacteria, keeping the bowel healthy.
Brown Rice vs White Rice
• Brown rice is unpolished whole grain rice that is produced by
removing only the outer husk. It becomes white rice when the bran
layer is stripped off in the milling process. Compared with white rice,
brown rice is more nutritious because it contains bran, which is a
source of fibre, oils, B vitamins, and important minerals.
Glycaemic Index (GI)
• Worldwide research has shown that different carbohydrate foods have
dramatically-different effects on blood sugar levels. The glycaemic index (GI)
was developed as a means of ranking foods based on their immediate effect
on blood sugar levels. Carbohydrate foods that break down quickly during
digestion have the highest GI factors. Carbohydrates which break down
slowly, releasing glucose gradually into the bloodstream have low GI factors.

Rice in general has a GI of between 54 and 121, depending on the variety of

rice. White rice has a higher GI than brown or basmathi rice. Monitoring the
amount of intake of food with the appropriate GI will help in controlling the
blood sugar level.
Introduction
• Quality refers to the suitability or fitness of an economic plant
product in relation to its end use.

• Definition of quality varies according to our needs from the

viewpoint of seeds, crop growth, crop product, post-harvest
technology, consumer preferences, cooking quality, keeping
quality, transportability etc. (Gupta, 2001).

• A trait that defines some aspect of produce quality is called

quality trait.

• Each crop has a specific and often somewhat to completely

different set of quality traits.
Grain quality characteristics

• Rice grain quality represents a summary of the physical and chemical characteristics that
may be genetic or acquired properties.
• The genetic properties include: 
• Chemical characteristics (gelatinization temperature, apparent amylase content, gel
consistency, alkali spreading value and aroma),
• Shape,
• Size,
• Color of grain,
• Chalkiness,
• Bulk density,
• Thermal conductivity,
• Equilibrium moisture content and
• Flowability.
The acquired properties or environmental factors are either additional to the normal
complement of genetic qualities or are the consequence of certain genetic qualities being
lost or modified. The important acquired properties are:

• Moisture content,
• Grain purity,
• Physical and pest damage, cracked grains,
• Presence of immature grains and
• Milling-related characteristics (milling and head rice recoveries, grain dimensions,
whiteness, milling degree and chalkiness) will likewise be included.
• Milling-related characteristics are relevant measures of value because these are the major
concern of consumers. The quality characteristics of paddy and milled rice can be
considered separately.
• There are several defined classes of rice, based on the physical
appearance of the milled rice, the cooking properties and the
aroma of the rice. Thus quality evaluation programs should go
hand-in-hand with breeding programs, and all quality
evaluation programs should have the capacity to measure at
least the basic traits.  
• A rice grain consists of:
•  Starch (~94%)
•  Protein (~5%)
•  Lipids (~1%)
• But, different levels of structure in the grain affect the
physical and the cooking properties!
 RICE QUALITY CHARACTERS

I. Physical characters
• Length and Breadth
• Translucency / opacity
II. Milling traits
• Shelling percentage
• Milling percentage
• Head Rice Recovery
III. Cooking and eating qualities
• Optimum cooking time
• Volume expansion and water absorption
• Kernel length after cooking (KLAC) and breadth after cooking
(KBAC)
• The length and width of a rice grain are important attributes that
determine the class of the rice. There are three main classes of rice,
based on grain length: short, medium and long. In terms of width,
Arborio styles are generally the widest, followed by short, medium
and long. The ratio of the length and the width is used internationally
to describe the shape and class of the variety. The other important
aspect of length and width is uniformity all the grains in one sample
must look the same
• Cracking decreases head rice yield because cracked grains
often break during milling. Most markets require whole or
unbroken grain, therefore cracked grain can reduce payments
received by the grower and the miller.

• Cracking also decreases the cooking quality of the grain.

Grains that are cracked but remain intact during milling are
deemed visually undesirable.

• Further, during cooking the starch leaches out of cracked grain

and collects as a sticky layer on the bottom of the rice cooker.
If rice is cooked by the rapid boil technique, the starch leaches
from the rice into the cooking water.
• Crack Detector
Using the Paddy Crack Detector, count the number of cracked grains in a 100
grain sample then compute the % cracked grains.

Cracks in grains can be detected by red and blue light

 Milling Degree
• Amount of bran removed in milling process
• Measured by whiteness meter or amount in weight of bran removed
 The whiteness and translucence of rice is important...

• The whiteness ranges from white to yellow. Yellowness occurs because of aging
or higher protein content. The higher protein content changes the cooking
properties of rice, particularly increasing the propensity of the rice to undergo
retrogradation cooling on cooking.
• Translucence relates to the degree of crystallinity of the starch a function of the
structure and packaging of the amylopectin molecules, and to the ability of the
light to be refracted without interfering with protein bodies. High protein detracts
from quality.
Chalkiness...
• Chalk is the opaque area in the rice grain and is undesirable in
almost every market. Chalky areas occur because of malformed
starch granules with air spaces between them. Chalky areas
cook differently from translucent areas, but only a very clever
palate could detect the difference. There are small differences
in the solubility of the starch and the gelatinization
temperature of the chalky and translucent areas, but research
has yet to discover why.
A visual rating of the chalky proportion of the grain is used to
measure chalkiness based on the standard Evaluation System
SES scale presented below:

Scale % area of chalkiness

1 less than 10

5 10-20

9 more than 20

%chalky grains = wt of chalky grains / wt of milled grains * 100

Cooking and Eating characteristics

Gelatinization temperature
• Unmodified starch granules are generally insoluble in water below 50°C.
Over a critical temperature range, the starch granules undergo irreversible
process known as gelatinization Temperature (GT).
Amylose content
• Amylose content (AC) is the single most important character predicting rice
cooking and eating quality features
• Low amylose varieties are moist, sticky and glossy; when cooked readily split and
disintegrate when over cooked.
• Rice with high amylose, cook dry and fluffy but become hard on cooking.
• Intermediate types are fluffy but retain soft texture when on cooling.
Gel consistency
• Gel consistency (GC) determines the cohesiveness, tenderness and gloss of
cooked rice when the amylose content is high.
Grain elongation and aroma:
• Aromatic long grain basmati rices are known
for their pleasant aroma and extra elongation
on cooking with least breadth wise swelling.
• Lengthwise expansion without increase in
girth is considered a highly desirable trait in
some high quality rices such as Basmati rices

• The aroma of rice plays a dominant role in

consumer acceptability and it draws premium
price in certain speciality markets.
 Quality traits Range Minimal acceptable
range
Hulling % 75 – 80 -
Milling % 70 – 75 65
Head rice recovery 30 – 60 45
%
Kernel length (mm) 3.0 – 8.0 >6.61

Kernel breadth 2.0 – 3.0 <2.0

(mm)
L/B ratio 1.5 – 3.5 3.50
Amylose (%) 1.0 – 32.0 20-25
Alkali value (GT) 2.0 – 7.0 4-7
Gel consistency 27 – 100 >40
(mm)
Kernel colour Black – Red – Brown – white -
Transparency Translucent – chalky -
White belly Present occasionally present – -
Absent
Classification Fine – Medium – Bold -
Grain shape:
• Follow the procedure of determining grain shape of paddy.
Based on the length to width ratio, the shape of the milled rice
will be determined. The ISO Classification is as follows:

Scale Shape L/W ratio

1 Slender Over 3.0

3 medium 2.1 – 3.0

5 bold 1.1-2.0
9 round 1.0 or less
Ravindrababu (2013)
ANALYSIS OF RICE QUALITY
CHARACTERS

1. Alkali test
2. Amylose estimation
3. Gel consistency test
4. Test for Aroma
• Moisture content Moisture content has a marked influence on all aspects of paddy
and rice quality and it is essential that paddy be milled at the proper moisture
content to obtain the highest head rice yield. Paddy is at its optimum milling
potential at moisture content of 14%. Grains with high moisture content are too
soft to withstand hulling pressure without undue breakage and may be pulverized.
Grain that is too dry becomes brittle and has greater breakage.
• Moisture content and temperature during the drying process is also critical as it
determines whether fissures and/or full cracks are introduced into the grain
structure
• Head rice percentage. The head rice percentage is the volume or weight of head
grain or whole kernel in the rice lot. Head rice normally includes broken kernels
that are 75-80% of the whole kernel. High head rice yield is one of the most
important criteria for measuring milled rice quality. Broken grain has normally
only half of the value of head rice. To a large extent, the characteristics of the
paddy determine the potential head rice yield although the milling process is
responsible for some losses and damage to the grain.
Moisture Tester

• Read the operators instruction

• Turn on the moisture meter and ensure that the machine is set
for paddy or rough rice.
• Fill the tray/bowl of the moisture tester with paddy samples.
• Turn/press the knob until the moisture reading is displayed.
• Test at least three samples
Amylose content:
• Amylose content is important because firmness and stickiness
are two properties of cooked rice that influence consumer
preference for, and use of different classes of rice
• Amylose content has traditionally been assessed by chemical
analysis of the rice but technology has produced non-
destructive methods using the NIR and the visible regions of
the spectrum.
• Recently too, a microsatellite marker has been discovered in
the flanking region of the GBSS gene and the polymorphism
relates to the amylose class and the market type. Fairly rapid
throughput methods have been developed for analysis of the
microsatellite in each rice line.
• Twenty grains are selected and ground in the UDY Cyclone
Mill. Amylose content is analyzed using the simplified iodine
colorimetric procedure. Samples are categorized into low,
intermediate and high based on the following grouping:
• 
Category %Amylose Content

Low 10-20

Intermediate 20-25

High 25-30
Gelatinisation temperature:
• Gelatinisation temperature is the temperature at which the starch in rice
begins the process of cooking. At this point the starch granules take in water
and lose their crystalline nature, a change that is irreversible. Rice starch
usually gelatinises between 65*C and 85*C.

• Rice with a gelatinisation temperature at the lower end of the range often
cooks to a softer texture and retrogrades less than rice with a gelatinisation
temperature at the upper end of the range.

• Gelatinisation is often measured by the alkali spreading method.  However

technology has improved the measurement of this trait too. Differential
scanning calorimetry gives the actual temperature of gelatinization and the
energy required for the particular rice to pass through that transition.
• Gelatinization temperature is measured using alkali-spreading
value. The alkali digestibility test is employed. Grains are
soaked in 1.7% KOH and incubated in a 30oC oven for 23
hours. Measurement ranges based on the following:
• 
Category Temp ranges (oC) Alkali Spread

low 55-69 6-7

Intermediate 70-74 4-5

High 75-79 2-3

• Gel consistency Gel consistency measures the tendency of the cooked rice to
harden on cooling. Gel consistency is determined by heating a small quantity of
rice in a dilute alkali. This test differentiates the consistency of cold 5.0% milled
rice paste. Within the same amylose group, varieties with a softer gel consistency
are preferred, and the cooked rice has a higher degree of tenderness.
• Harder gel consistency is associated with harder cooked rice and this feature is
particularly evident in high-amylose rice. Hard cooked rice also tend to be less
sticky
• Gel consistency.
• Two to 10 grains are selected and ground separately in the Wig-
L Bug. Gel consistency is measured by the cold gel in a test
tube, being held horizontally, for one hour. Measurement
ranges and category are as follows:
 
Category Consistency, mm
 
Soft 61-100

Medium 41-60

hard 26-40
Viscosity :
• Viscosity is a characteristic that indicates some of the cooking properties of rice.
The cooking properties of rice are primarily measured by Rapid Visco Analysis
(RVA), which mimics the process of cooking and monitors the changes to a slurry
of rice flour and water, during the test

• The slurry is stirred constantly with a paddle and heated. Viscosity is measured as
the resistance of the slurry to the paddle
TEXTURE:
• Texture describes what we might experience in our mouths when
eating rice: initial mouthfeel, hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness,
springiness, resilience, gumminess and chewiness.
• Rice research and development programs in Louisiana and Arkansas,
in the USA, are attempting to identify instrumental methods that
correlate well with scores reported by sensory panels for the different
textural characters.
Flavour and aroma:
• Basmati and jasmine are classes of fragrant style rice. Fragrant
rice contains particular compounds that give the rice flavour.
Otherwise, slightly perceptible changes in flavour of all rice
classes can be caused by aging, storage, the depth of milling
(i.e. the amount of polishing), the local environment and
probably a number of other things.
• Flavour in fragrant rice is produced by volatile compounds,
many of which are volatilised during cooking to produce an
aroma
• Environmental conditions can cause a lot of the variation seen
in aroma.  Aroma is measured by simply sniffing the rice.
Otherwise the peaks can be quantified by Gas Chromatography.
AROMATIC RICE
• Aromatic rice is one of the major types of rice.
•  It is a medium to long-grained rice.
• It is known for its nut-like aroma and taste, which is caused by the
chemical compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. 
• Varieties of aromatic rice include: basmati, jasmine,
Texmati, Tulaipanji, Wehani, and wild pecan rice.
• When cooked, the grains have a light and fluffy texture.
Drying
• Drying reduces grain moisture content to a safe level for storage. It is
the most critical operation after harvesting a rice crop.
Parboiling
Parboiled rice is rice that has been boiled in the husk. Parboiling makes rice easier to
process , improves its nutritional profile, and changes its texture. Parboiling rice drives
nutrients, especially thiamine, from the bran into the grain, so that parboiled white rice
is nutritionally similar to brown rice. The process of parboiling itself, however, is more
than two thousand years old and believed to have originated in the Persian Gulf
Milling
Milling is a crucial step in post-production of rice. The basic objective is
to remove the husk and the bran layers, to produce and edible white
rice that is sufficiently milled and free of impurities.
Processing
• Milling Starts with the cleaning of rice. This is a multi-step process
where foreign material like straws, mud balls, dust , threads, stones,
paddy and metal particles are removed from the rice.
• High Performance recleaners and classifiers are used to achieve great
accuracy in feeding a purified rice to the later processes.
Polishing Grading Sorting