Chapter 4

Positioning by Global Positioning System

GPS System
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based radio-based navigation
system that was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in the early
1970s.
• Initially, GPS was developed as a military system to fulfill U.S. military needs.
• However, it was later made available to civilians, and is now a dual-use system that
can be accessed by both military and civilian users.
• GPS system is currently operated by United States Air Force
Note: Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 gigahertz (GHz) to
as low as 30 hertz (hz)
At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm, and at 30 Hz
is 10,000 km
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Contd…
• GPS provides continuous positioning and timing information,
anywhere in the world under any weather conditions.
• GPS satellites also called NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite Timing and
Ranging), the official U.S. DOD name for GPS
• As GPS serves an unlimited number of users as well as being used for
security reasons, it is a one-way-ranging (passive) system i.e. user can
only receive satellite signals.

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Contd…
• GPS consists, nominally, of a constellation of 24 operational satellites
that circle the globe once every 12 sidereal hours.
• This constellation, known as the initial operational capability (IOC),
was completed in July 1993.
• To ensure continuous worldwide coverage, GPS satellites are arranged
so that four satellites are placed in each of six orbital planes.
• With this constellation geometry, four to ten GPS satellites will be
visible anywhere in the world, if an elevation angle of 10° is
considered.

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Contd…
• GPS satellite orbits are nearly circular (an elliptical shape with a maximum
eccentricity is about 0.01), with an inclination of about 55° to the equator
and are separated by 60˚ right ascension of the ascending node
• Satellite orbits in 20200 Km from the surface of the earth with semi-major
axis of GPS satellite of 26560 km
• GPS has tremendous amount of application in GIS data collection,
Surveying and mapping.
• The orbital period of GPS satellite is about 12 sidereal hour ( 11 hrs 58
min).
• Achieved full operational capabilities (FOC) on July 17, 1995

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Contd….
GPS segment
Contd…
Space Segment
• The space segment consists of the 24-satellite constellation, orbiting
in six orbit with four satellite in each orbit.
• A minimum of 4 satellite must be viewed by the receiver (user) for
accurate 3D coordinate.
• Each GPS satellite transmits a signal, which has a number of
components:
• two sine waves (also known as carrier frequencies),
• two digital codes
• and a navigation message

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Contd…
• The codes and the navigation message are added to the carriers as
binary bi phase modulations.
• The carriers and the codes are used mainly to determine the
distance from the user’s receiver to the GPS satellites.

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Contd…
Contd…
• The navigation message contains, along with other information, the
coordinates (the location) of the satellites as a function of time.
• The transmitted signals are controlled by highly accurate atomic
clocks onboard the satellites.

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Control Segment

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Contd…
• The control segment of the GPS system consists of a worldwide
network of tracking stations, with a master control station (MCS)
located in the United States at Colorado Springs, Colorado, Monitor
Station and ground antenna.
• The primary task of the operational control segment is tracking the GPS
satellites in order to
• determine and predict satellite locations
• system integrity
• behavior of the satellite atomic clocks
• atmospheric data
• the satellite almanac ( will be discussed later)

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Control Segment
• The monitor stations receive all satellite signals, from which they determine the pseudo ranges to all
visible satellites, and transmit the range data along with local meteorological data via data link to the
Master Control Station.
• From these data the MCS computes satellite ephemerides and the behavior of the satellite clocks
and formulates the navigation data (message).
• The message data are transmitted to the ground antennas and uplinked to the satellites in view.
• Because of the global distribution of the upload antennas at least three contacts per day can be
realized between the control segment and each particular satellite.
• Till date an operational control segment includes:
 a Master Control Station
 An alternative Master Control Station
 11 ground antenna
 16 monitoring station
Contd…

Fig : Control Segment

User Segment
• The user segment includes all military and civilian users.
• With a GPS receiver connected to a GPS antenna, a user can receive
the GPS signals, which can be used to determine his or her position
anywhere in the world.
• GPS is currently available to all users worldwide at no direct charge.

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GPS Signals
• Each GPS satellite transmits a microwave radio signal composed of two
carrier frequencies (or sine waves) modulated by two digital codes and
a navigation message.
Contd…
• The two carrier frequencies are generated at 1,575.42 MHz (referred to as the Ll
carrier) and 1,227.60 MHz (referred to as the L2 carrier).
• The corresponding carrier wavelengths are approximately l9 cm and 24.4 cm
respectively.
• All of the GPS satellites transmit the same Ll and L2 carrier frequencies.
• The two GPS codes are called coarse acquisition (or C/A-code) and precision (or P-
code).
• Each code consists of a stream of binary digits, zeros and ones, known as bits or
chips.
• The C/A-code is modulated onto the Ll carrier only, while the P-code is modulated
onto both the Ll and the L2 carriers.
Contd…
• C/A Code
• The C/A-code is a stream of 1,023 binary digits (i.e., 1,023 zeros and ones)
that repeats itself every millisecond
• This means that the chipping rate of the C/A-code is 1.023 Mbps i.e the
duration of one bit is approximately 1 ms,
• One chips is approximately 300m long.
• Each satellite is assigned a unique C/A-code, which enables the GPS receivers
to identify which satellite is transmitting a particular code.
• The C/A-code range measurement is relatively less precise compared with
that of the P-code. It is, however, less complex and is available to all users.
Contd…
• P-code
• The P-code is a very long sequence of binary digits that repeats itself
after 266 days.
• It is also 10 times faster than the C/A-code (i.e., its rate is l0.23 Mbps).
• Thus P-code is about a stream of about 2.35 x l0l4 chips.
• The 266 day long code is divided into 38 segments, each is 1 week long
• Of these, 32 segments are assigned to the various GPS satellite and other 6
segments are reserved for the other uses.
• Each satellite transmits a unique 1-week segment of the P-code, which
is initialized every Saturday/Sunday midnight crossing.
• For example, a GPS satellite with an ID of PRN 20 refers to a GPS satellite
Contd…
• The P-code is designed primarily for military purposes. It was available to
all users until January 3l, l994.
• At that time, the P-code was encrypted by adding to it an unknown
W – code.
• The resulting encrypted code is called which has the same chipping rate
as the P-code.
• This encryption is known as the anti-spoofing (AS).
Contd…
• Navigational message
• The GPS navigation message is a data stream added to both the Ll and the L2 carriers as
binary biphase modulation at a low rate of 50 kbps.
• It consists of 25 frames of 1,500 bits each, or 37,500 bits in total
• This means that the transmission of the complete navigation message takes 750 seconds,
or l2.5 minutes
• The navigation message contains, along with other information :
 the coordinates of the GPS satellites as a function of time
the satellite health status
the satellite clock correction
the satellite almanac, and atmospheric data.
Pseudorange measurement
• It is the distance between the GPS receiver’s antenna and the GPS satellite’s antenna.
• Either the P-code or the C/A-code can be used for measuring the pseudorange.
• Let us assume for a moment that both the satellite and the receiver clocks, which control the signal
generation, are perfectly synchronized with each other.
• When the PRN code is transmitted from the satellite, the receiver generates an exact replica of that
code.
• After some time transmitted code will be picked up by the receiver
• By comparing the transmitted code and its replica, the receiver can compute the signal travel time
• Multiplying the travel time by the speed of light (299,729,458 m/s) gives the range between the
satellite and the receiver.
Contd…
Contd…
• But in reality receiver and satellite clocks synchronization is not exactly
perfect.
• For this reason, this quantity is referred to as the pseudorange, not the
exact range.
Carrier-phase measurement
• Another way of measuring the ranges to the satellites can be obtained
through the carrier phases.
• The range is simply the sum of the total number of full carrier cycles plus
fractional cycles at the receiver and the satellite, multiplied by the carrier
wavelength
Contd…
• One problem with the carriers are they are pure sinusoidal waves, which
means that all cycles look the same.
• Therefore, a GPS receiver has no means to differentiate one cycle from
another.
• In other words, the receiver, when it is switched on, cannot determine the
total number of the complete cycles between the satellite and the receiver.
• It can only measure a fraction of a cycle very accurately (less than 2 mm),
while the initial number of complete cycles remains unknown, or ambiguous.
• This is commonly known as the initial cycle ambiguity, or the ambigu- ity
bias.
Contd…
• One alternative solution to this initial ambugity problem is the receiver
has the capability to keep track of the phase changes after being
switched on.
• It is clear that if the initial cycle ambiguity parameters are resolved,
accurate range measurements can be obtained, which lead to accurate
position determination.
• This high accuracy positioning can be achieved through the so-called
relative positioning techniques.
• But this requires two GPS receivers simultaneously tracking the same
satellites in view.
Working Principle of GPS
• The working/operation of Global positioning system is based on the
‘trilateration’ mathematical principle.
Contd…
• Things which is need to be determined before the receiver
determines its position
 Current locations of GPS satellite
 Range between satellite and receiver

• The orbit and the location of the satellites, are known in advances
• When the receiver receives the signal the ranges are computed by
multiplying the time it take to reach the receiver with the velocity of
radio wave ( i.e speed of light).
Contd…
• Finally the receiver’s position is found out using the principle of
Trilateration
Contd…
Contd…
• In principle, three satellites are enough to fix a position on the earth
surface
Contd…
Contd…
• But the clocks may have errors, especially the clocks at the receivers
end are not exactly synchronised with the satellite clocks.
• This synchronization error is the reason for the term “pseudorange”
• For the receiver to measure time precisely a highly accurate,
synchronized clock is needed.
• If the transit time is out by just 1 μs this produces a positional error of
300m.
• As the clocks onboard all three satellites are synchronised, the transit
time in the case of all three measurements is inaccurate by the same
amount.
Contd…
• To solve the problem, we can use a well known mathematical solution of
equations
• If N variables are unknown, we need N independent equations.
• If the time measurement is accompanied by a constant unknown error, we
will have four unknown variables in 3-D space:
• Longitude (X)
• Latitude (Y)
• Height (Z)
• time error (Δt)
• It therefore follows that in three-dimensional space four satellites are
needed to determine a position.
Contd
Contd…
• In order to determine these four unknown variables, four independent
equations are needed.
• The four transit times required, are supplied by the four different
satellites
• The 24 GPS satellites are distributed around the globe in such a way
that at least 4 of them are always “visible” from any point on Earth
• Despite receiver time errors, a position on a plane can be calculated
very accurately
• It should be pointed out that if more than four satellites are tracked,
the so-called least-squares estimation is applied.
Errors in GPS

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Errors in GPS

• These errors may be classified as those originating at the

 satellites,
 those originating at the receiver,
 and those that are due to signal propagation (atmospheric
refraction)

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Errors in GPS
• The errors originating at the receiver include receiver
• clock errors,
• multipath error,
• receiver noise, and
• antenna phase center variations.
• The signal propagation errors include the delays of the GPS signal as it
passes through the ionospheric and tropospheric layers of the
atmosphere. In fact, it is only in a vacuum (free space) that the GPS
signal travels, or propagates, at the speed of light.

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Satellite clock errors

• Caused by slight discrepancies in each satellite’s four atomic clocks.

Errors are monitored and corrected by the Master Control Station.

Orbit errors
• Satellite orbit (referred to as “satellite ephemeris”) pertains to the
altitude, position and speed of the satellite. Satellite orbits vary due
to gravitational pull and solar pressure fluctuations. Orbit errors are
also monitored and corrected by the Master Control Station.

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• Satellite clock errors cause additional errors to the GPS measurements.
These errors are common to all users observing the same satellite and can
be removed through differencing between the receivers. Applying the
satellite clock correction in the navigation message can also correct the
satellite clock errors. This, however, leaves an error of the order of several
nanoseconds, which translates to a range error of a few meters (one
nanosecond error is equivalent to a range error of about 30 cm). ( cost of
clock few thousand dollars for the rubidium clocks to about $20,000 for
the cesium clocks. )

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Ionospheric interference
• The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere from 50 to 500 km altitude that consists
primarily of ionized air.
• Ionospheric interference causes the GPS satellite radio signals to be refracted as they pass
through the earth’s atmosphere – causing the signals to slow down or speed up.
• This results in inaccurate position measurements by GPS receivers on the ground.
• Even though the satellite signals contain correction information for ionospheric
interference, it can only remove about half of the possible 70 nanoseconds of delay,
leaving potentially up to a ten meter horizontal error on the ground.
• GPS receivers also attempt to “average” the amount of signal speed reduction caused by
the atmosphere when they calculate a position fix.
• Error caused by atmospheric conditions is usually less than error caused by Ionospheric
interference.

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Tropospheric interference
• The troposphere is the lower layer of the earth’s atmosphere (below 13
km) that experiences the changes in temperature, pressure, and
humidity associated with weather changes.
• GPS errors are largely due to water vapor in this layer of the
atmosphere. Tropospheric interference is fairly insignificant to GPS.
• Receiver noise is simply the electromagnetic field that the receiver’s
internal electronics generate when it’s turned on.
• Electromagnetic fields tend to distort radio waves. This affects the travel
time of the GPS signals before they can be processed by the receiver.
• This error cannot be corrected by the GPS receiver.
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Multipath interference

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Multipath interference
• Such type of are caused by reflected radio signals from surfaces near the
GPS receiver that can either interfere with or be mistaken for the true signal
that follows an uninterrupted path from a satellite.
• Multipath is difficult to detect and sometimes impossible for the user to
avoid, or for the receiver to correct.
• Common sources of multipath include car bodies, buildings, power lines and
water. When using GPS in a vehicle, placing an external antenna on the roof
of the vehicle will eliminate most signal interference caused by the vehicle.
• Using a GPS receiver placed on the dashboard will always have some
multipath interference.

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Multipath interference

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Selective Availability
• Selective Availability (S/A) was the intentional degradation of the
satellite signals by a time varying bias.
• Selective Availability is controlled by the DOD to limit accuracy for non
- U.S. military and government users and was originally instituted for
security reasons.

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 • Number of satellites visible: The more satellites the
receiver can “see”, the better the accuracy. Signal
reception can be blocked by buildings, terrain,
electronic interference and sometimes dense foliage.
The clearer the view, to the receiver, the better the
reception.
• Satellite geometry: This refers to the relative position
of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite
geometry exists when the satellites are located at
wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry
exists when the satellites are located in a line or in a
tight grouping.

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• The satellite geometry effect can be measured by a single dimensionless
number called the dilution of precision (DOP). The lower the value of the
DOP number, the better the geometric strength, and vice versa.
• The DOP number is computed based on the relative receiver-satellite
geometry at any instance, that is, it requires the availability of both the
receiver and the satellite coordinates.

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Almanac
• Data transmitted by a GPS satellite which includes orbit information on all the satellites and
health of satellites, satellite clock correction, and atmospheric delay parameters.
• These data are used to facilitate rapid SV acquisition. The orbit information is a subset of the
ephemeris data with reduced accuracy. Information on the entire GPS constellation is
transmitted by each GPS satellite. For reading a complete new almanac it takes 12.5 minutes.
There are two different Almanac formats: the SEM format and the YUMA format The YUMA
format, which is used by a variety of satellite tracking programs, defines 13 parameters:
ID
PRN of the SVN Health: 000=usable
Eccentricity: This shows the amount of the orbit deviation from circular (orbit). It is the
distance between the foci divided by the length of the semi-major axis (our orbits are very
circular).
Time of Applicability: The number of seconds in the orbit when the almanac was generated.
Orbital Inclination: The angle to which the SV orbit meets the equator (GPS is at approx. 55
degrees). Roughly, the SV's orbit will not rise above approx. 55 degrees latitude.
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Almanac
Rate of Right Ascension: Rate of change of the angle of right ascension as defined in the
Right Ascension mnemonic.
RightS QRT(A) Square Root of Semi-Major Axis: This is defined as the measurement from
the center of the orbit to either the point of apogee or the point of perigee.
 Ascension at Time of Almanac (TOA): Right Ascension is the angle between the vernal
equinox and the ascending node.
Argument of Perigee: An angular measurement along the orbital path measured from the
ascending node to the point of perigee, measured in the direction of the SV's motion.
 Mean Anomaly: Angle (arc) traveled past the longitude of ascending node (value= 0-180
degrees or 0-negative 180 degrees). If the value exceeds 180 degrees, subtract 360 degrees
to find the mean anomaly. When the SV has passed perigee and heading towards apogee,
the mean anomaly is positive. After the point of apogee, the mean anomaly value will be
negative to the point of perigee. Af(0): SV clock bias in seconds Af(1): SV clock Drift in
seconds per seconds week: GPS week (0000-1024), every 7 days since 6 Jan 1980/0000z
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Constellation
Refers to either the specific set of satellites used in calculating a position,
or all the satellites visible to a GPS receiver at one time, or the entire
ensemble of GPS satellites comprising the Space Segment.
Cutoff Angle
The minimum acceptable satellite elevation angle (above the horizon) to
avoid blockage of line of-sight, multipath errors or too high Tropospheric or
Ionospheric Delay values. May be preset in the receiver, or applied during
data post-processing. For navigation receivers may be set as low as 5°, while
for GPS Surveying typically a cutoff angle of 15° is used.
Cycle Slip
A discontinuity in the carrier phase measurement resulting from a temporary
loss of lock in the carrier tracking loop of a GPS receiver. It indicates that a
receiver has momentarily lost the signal from a satellite

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