MET 06105

BASICS OF AUTOMATION

Delivery By: Munuo E.L

 Theory of Mechatronics
 The development of computer and then the microcomputer,
embedded computers, and associated information,
technologies and software advances, made mechatronics an
imperative discipline

 There are many definitions of mechatronics in the literature

but most of them hinge around the integration of
mechanical, electronics, control and information technology
to obtain the best solution to a given technological problem,
which is the realization of a product
 Theory of Mechatronics

Definition
• It is an interdisciplinary technology that responds to industries
increasing demand for engineers that are able to work across
the discipline boundaries of electronics, control and mechanical
engineering to identify and use the proper combination of
technologies for optimum solution to today’s increasingly
challenging engineering problems
• The essence of the integration of different technologies was to
obtain the best solution to the technological problem
 The key mechatronics components.

There are four key mechatronics components which are

integrated in such a way as to produce a real product that is of
practical use to people. These are:
 Electronics – This makes use of semiconductors to make
some important electronic devises
 Sensors and actuators - Sensors are for monitoring the
performance of machines and processes and actuators are
devices that can convert one form of energy to another
useful form
 Digital control – This includes a closed loop system having a
feedback and open loop system with no feedback
 Information technology – A computer is used to
communicate information to a mechatronic system
 FUNCTIONAL PARTS OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEM

 Mechatronics technology comprises four functional

parts:-
• Information processing part – This refers to a control unit
that uses computer to process information required in
various parts.
• Sensor part – Performs detective and measurement work
• Actuator part – Energy conversion devices
• Machine tool part – Having machines for production of
items
 Automation
Definition
• Automation can be defined as a technology concerned with
mechanical electronics and computer based system to operate
and control systems
• Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without or with little human assistance. It is
implemented using program of instructions combined with
control system
• Factory automation can generally be stated as the realization of
job automation in a factory using computers in which the typical
role of a computer is not merely automation of the process but
also rationalization of all processes
 Background of Factory Automation (FA)
emerging
Social background:
• Diversity of market needs
• Pursuit productivity increase
• Working population
Technical background:
• Development of electronics
• Development of precision/automatic control
• Development of software Engineering
Automated manufacturing systems
Automated manufacturing systems can perform
their operations without human assistance or
with a reduced level of human participation
compared with the corresponding manual
process
Examples of automated systems are:
• Automated machine tools that process parts.
• Automatic material handling and storage.
• Automated Inspection system for quality control
 Basic types of automated manufacturing systems
 Classification of Automated manufacturing system
Automated manufacturing system can be classified into three basic types.
• Fixed automation.
• Programmable automation.
• Flexible automation
 Features of fixed automation
• High production rate
• Inflexibility in accommodating product variety
• Initial cost of investing is high
 Features of the programmable automation  
• Low production rate.
• Flexibility to deal with variation and changes in product configuration.
• Most suitable for production
 Features flexible automation
• Continuous production of the variable mixture of products.
• Medium production rate.
• Flexible to deal with products design variations
 Reasons for Automation
Some Reasons for Imaging of Automation are:
• Increase productivity.
• To reduce the labor cost.
• Reduction of production costs.
• To Improve the workers safety
• Improving product quality
• To reduce manufacturing lead time.
• Reduction of routine work or clinic tasks
• Mitigation of labor shortage
 Examples of Automated System

Examples of automated system are;

• Domestic appliances:
Fridge, Freezers, Microwave ovens, washing
machine, Vacuums cleaners, dish washer, cooker,
timers, mixers, blenders, stereos, video player,
Digital camera etc.
• Domestic systems:
A/C, Security Systems, Automatic gate control
 Examples of Automated System
• Office equipment: Laser printer, hard drive
photocopies, liquids, crystals Display, Tape driver,
scanners, fax machine, computers peripherals.
• Retail equipment: Automatic labeling system, bar
coding system.
•  Banking: Cash register, Automatic Teller Machine
(ATM)
•  Manufacturing equipment: Numerical controlled
tools Pick and place robots, welding robots,
automated guided vehicle, Industrial Robots.
•  Aviation system: Flight control actuator, landing
Gear System
 COMPUTERIZED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Computerized manufacturing system are:

• Computer Integrated manufacturing (CIM)
• Computer aided design (CAD)
• Computer aided Manufacturing (CAM)
 Automation of manufacturing support systems

 Automation of manufacturing support systems

• Automation of manufacturing support systems is
aimed at reducing the amount of manual and clinical
effort, product design, manufacturing, planning and
control and the business function of the firm.
• Computer technology is used to implement
automation of the manufacturing system in the factory.
• The term computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)
denotes the use of computer system to design
products, plan production, control operation and
perform various business related functions needed in
manufacturing firm
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

 The term Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

denotes the use of computer system to:
• design products,
• plan production,
• control operation and
• perform various business related functions needed in
manufacturing firm
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

The true CIM involves the integration of all of these

functions in one system that operates through the enterprise.
Examples are;
• Computer Aided Design (CAD) denotes the use of
Computer system to support the product design function.
• Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) denotes the use
of computer system to perform functions related to
manufacturing engineering such as process planning and
numerical control part program.
•  Some systems do perform both CAD and CAM, so they are
termed as CAD/CAM, used to indicate the integration of the
two into one system
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing

CIM System
CIM is a system that has systematically connected the area of design,
production control, and material ordering as well as production
automation with computers and communication technologies.

CIM Elements
CIM consists of the following elements:
• Production schedule
• CAD (Computer aided design)
• CAE (Computer aided engineering)
• CAM (Computer aided manufacturing)
• Material procurement
• Inventory control
• Production preparation etc.
 Computer Integrated Manufacturing
CIM Divisions
CIM may be divided into four divisions, which are;
• General management division
Issues like strategies, personnel, fund and marketing are dealt with in
this division.
• R & D division
Analysis, product production design etc. are dealt with in this division.
• Production preparation division
Facilities, raw materials, vendor part etc. are dealt with in this division.
• Production control division
Daily production schedule, emergence process etc. are dealt with in
this division
 Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)
FMS System
FMS is one of the most advanced automated manufacturing
systems.

FMS System
FMS comprises seven elements which are noteworthy:
• NC machines tool
• Industry robotics
• Automatic conveyor
• Automatic warehousing
• Automatic maintenance
• Inspection system
• Central computer
 Flexible Manufacturing System
System Operation Stations
When looking at FMS from a system operation
view point, it has the following stations:
• Material input/output station
• Work setting station
• Cleaning station
• Tool carrier
• Tool room
• Central control room
• Automatic warehouse
 Manual labour in production operations
 Manual Labour in Production Operations
• This is the operation that is done manually.
• Human participation in these operations processes a
certain attribute that gives them advantages over
machine in certain situation and task.
 Manual Labour Preference Over Automation

 Manual Labour Preference

A number of situations can be listed in which
manual labour is usually preferred over
automation.
Some examples are:
• Task automating difficulty
• Short product life cycle
• To cope with ups and downs of demand change in
demand for product
• To reduce risk of product failure
 Manual labour preference over automation

Task automating difficulty:

Reasons for difficulty may be;
• Problem with physical access to the work
location.
• Manual cleverness and skills required for
adjustment required in a task.
• Demand on hand – eye coordination.
 Manual Labour Preference Over Automation

Short product life cycle

A manual labour is faster production
• If product must be designed in short period of
time to meet a near term window opportunity
or
• If the product is anticipated to be on the market
for a short period,
 Manual labour preference over automation

To cope with ups and downs demand change in

demand for product.
• This necessitates change in production
output levels, such as move easily made
when manual labour is used.
To reduce risk of product failure.
• A company introducing a new product to the market
knows for sure its ultimate success
• The manual labour production reduces the risk of
losing significant investment
Relative strength of machine and human labour

 Comparison between machine and human labour

relative strength
 Relative strength of the human labour
• Can develop new solution to problems.
• Can cope with problem.
• Can adopt changes.
• Can generalize from observations
• Can learn from experience
• Can make difficult decision based on incomplete
 Relative strength of machine and human
labour
Relative strength of the machine
• They can perform respective task.
• Can perform multiple tasks at the same time
• Can apply power and force.
• Can make routine decision quickly.
• Can store and retrieve large amount of data
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE

 It has been seen that the automation is not

always right answer for production situation.

There are several approaches for dealing with

automation project, some of which are;
 USA (United Simplified Automated) principle
 Ten strategies
 Mitigation strategies
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE

USA principle
USA is similar to saying:
• Understand the existing process
• Simplify the process.
• Automate the process
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE

Understand the existing process

You need to have details of:-
• What are the inputs?
• What are the outputs?
• What is the function of process?
• How does it add value to the product?
• What are the up-streams and down-streams in the
production sequence?
• Can the process be combined with the process under
consideration?
• What is exactly happening to the work? Units between
input and output
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE

Simplify the process

Once the existing process is understood then the search can begin for
way to simplify. This often involves questions about existing process.
• What is the purpose of this step?
• Is this step necessary?
• Can this step be eliminated?
• Is the most appropriate technology being used in this step?
• Can this step be simplified?
• Can these steps be combined?

Automate the process

Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form the
automation can be considered
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE
Ten strategies for automation
If automation seems to be feasible solution to improving productivity quality or rather
measure of performance. The ten strategies provide a road to search for these improvements.

• Specialization of operation
Involve the use of special purpose equipment designed to perform operation with possible
efficiency. 
• Combined operations
Production occurs as a sequence of operation. In this setup the manufacturing lead time is
reduced and hundreds of complex parts are produced. 
• Simultaneous operation.
The production is done at one work station.
• Integration of specialization
The aim is to link several work stations together, this reduces the number of separated
machines.
• Increased flexibility
This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equipment. This reduces set up time
and program time for production machine.
 
 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLE

 Ten Strategies for Automation

• Improve material handling and storage.
This is for reducing nonproductive time existing in the use of automated material
handling and storage system. 
• On line inspection
Inspection for quality of work is necessary. Incorporation of inspection into
production system permits correction.
• Process control and optimization.
By this strategy the individual process time can be reduced and product quality
improved.
• Plant operation control
It attempts to manage and coordinate the operation of the plant with more efficiency.
This involves high level computer networking. 
• Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)
CIM involves the extensive use of computer application, computer data base and
computer networking through enterprise.
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AUTOMATED SYSTEMS/PROCESS

Automated System Basic Elements

Automated systems consist of three basic elements
which are:.
• Power
This is for accomplishing the process and operating
the system
• A program of instruction
This is for directing the process
• Control system
This is for circulating the instruction
 Program of Instruction

The program of instruction is a set of actions

performed by the automated process and can be
carried out by a work cycle.

Typical sequence of steps to be followed in

performing the process are:
• Load part into the production machine.
• Perform the process.
• Unload the part
 Control system
The control system can be defined as the ability to
regulate the operations and associated equipment
as well as integrations and coordination of the
operations into the larger system.
The control elements of the automated system
execute the program of instructions.
The control in automated system can either be
• closed loop,
• open loop or
• mixture of open and closed loop
 A closed Loop Control System
 A closed loop consists of six elements
• Input parameter
• Processes
• Output variable
• Feedback sensor
• Actuator
• Controller
This operates with a feedback, so in this system there is
comparison of input parameter and the output variable
 An Open Loop Control System
An open loop
• This Control System operates without a feedback.
• In this type of system there is no comparing of input
parameter and the output variable
• The system is always simple and less expensive
 SENSORS

 What are sensors?

• Sensors are the devices that can convert mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
• They are elements for monitoring the performance of
machine and process
• The major functions of a sensor are detection and
measurement.
• A sensor comprises a receiving section and a decision
section connected by a carrier corresponding to the
object of detection or measurement
 Classifications of sensors

The common classifications of sensors are;

• Distance sensors
• Movement sensors
• proximity sensors
• Stress train force
• Temperature sensors
• Pressure sensors
 Key issues in the selection of sensors
The key issues in the selection of sensors are:
• The field of the view and ranges
• Accuracy
• Responsiveness in the target
• Repeatability and Resolution
• Power consumption
• Hardware reliability
• Size
• Interpretation reliability
Substitute sensors for the five Human senses
These are sensors from which high level functions are
demanded since their performance approximates the
human senses - sight, sound, smell, taste and touch.
• They are classified as “Intelligent” since “mental
activity” is demanded.
• However, regardless of the type, sensors are unable to
perform to design specifications if the object of use is
unclear
 Important characteristics of sensors
Important characteristics of sensors are:
• Reliability
• Life
• Cost
• Accuracy
• Detection/response time
Steps to take when introducing FA sensors
Classify purpose of use of the sensor
Judge past method, advanced function
specifications
Decide specifications
Measure range, accuracy, method of measurement,
frequency, scope of estimate and share of
responsibility
Comparative study of sensors
Compare performance, cost, conditions of use, life
and method of maintenance
 Sensor dimensions

Sensor dimensions
• The contents of the sensor carrier information
judged in the receiving section range from 0 to 3
dimensions.
• If expressed graphically it will be a pyramid.
• The amount of carrier information increases
sharply from 0 to 1 dimension, from 1 to 2
dimensions and from 2 to 3 dimensions.
• And it may be said that the more the dimension the
more advanced the sensor
 Photoelectric sensors
Many types of photoelectric sensors are on the
market and in use at worksite.
Photoelectric sensors are
• inexpensive,
• compact and
• highly reliable one – dimensional sensors
• they use light as the carrier
• they have quick response,
• a long life and
• degradation resistance
 Classification of photoelectric sensor
Photoelectric sensors are classified according to or
by:
• Configuration
• Method of sensing
• Light source
• Form of output
• Progression of light
• Photodiode
Selection factors of photoelectric sensors
Selection of photoelectric sensors depends on
the following factors
• Shape of the object
• Size of the object
• Color of the object
• Sensing time (response time)
• Detecting accuracy
 Application of typical photoelectric sensors
 Detection of object passing on a conveyor

 Detection of minute objects

e.g. System for detecting IC broken pins
 Abnormal position detection
e.g. Detecting a toppled bottle with a transmission type photoelectric sensor
system
 Detection of unevenness and difference in level

e.g. The photoelectric sensor detects the difference in the level of an object by the amount
of reflected light
 Counting sensor

e.g. counting a number of objects on a conveyor

 Height sensor
Multiple photoelectric sensors are used for simple discrimination of objects of different height.
The system can also be applied to differentiate objects by width dimension and by diameter
 AIR SENSOR

• Air sensor and air switches use air as the

carrier. These may be called “semi-contact
sensors” since the discharged air is applied to
the object and the measure and (distance to be
measured) is measured by measuring the back
pressure of the air
 Merits and demerits of air sensor

Merits
- Energy source is air
- Essentially explosion proof
- Suitable for detection of transparent objects ( glass, plastics etc)
- Can be used in high temperature locations
- This is a semi-contactless sensor
- Is cost efficient

Demerits
- Higher response if piping is long
- Compression and temperature of air cause changes. Phase change is large
- Lacks freedom in re-tooling
- Output change is large depending on the surface of the object
- Problems of accuracy arise with moving objects
 AUDITORY SENSOR

• Although most auditory sensors use microphones, the

problem of auditory recognition exists. Microphone

is the detecting element of an auditory sensor
• Similar to visual recognition, high-level sense such as
that of brain activity will also be required for auditory
recognition.
• The auditory sensor may be divided into three
functions with the first being the object on a practical
level
 Functions of Auditory Sensors
 Voice recognition: Recognizing and understanding a person’s voice.
Research has long been conducted on voice recognition since
information is scarce as compared to visual recognition and since
frequency analysis is also involved
 Discrimination of abnormal sounds: Most of these sensors are
portable types that analyze sound for early detection of internal
abnormality of e.g. motors and pumps
 Judgment of sound source direction: There is little importance from
a practical aspect. The direction of the sound source can be determined
with a combination of two microphones and a servo mechanism
 COLOR SENSOR

 The performance of color sensors used in the field of FA is

inferior to the human eye and cannot be considered
adequate.
 This is because color sensation of the human eye is highly
advanced with sensitivity on the color yellow.
 Although the visible light area of the human eye is inferior
in the sensor field, sensors are superior in the ultraviolet and
infrared areas.
 POSITIONING SENSOR
 Positioning is an important criterion of various machines, and its control method is related to
sensor, which determines positioning accuracy

 Points in selecting positioning sensors

• Positioning accuracy: important that accuracy be either absolute or reproducible

• Change in weight of moving body: coasting distance of moving bodies varies due to inertia.

 Moving distance (stroke):measuring distance is related to the number of sensors

 Direction of movement: horizontal, vertical and diagonal are related to gravity

• Coefficient of friction: deceleration characteristics change due to wheel slippage

 Drive source: electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic sources

 Moving speed and frequency: positioning accuracy deteriorates with an increase in moving
speed and frequency
 Construction; e.g. ease of wiring and piping work

 Cost: purchase cost, running cost, maintenance cost

 MEASURING SENSORS
 Measuring sensors are principally industrial process
sensors
 Measuring sensors are centered on those for detecting
temperature flow, pressure and level required in the
control of energy
Temperature sensor
• Because temperature sensor uses the carrier directly as
temperature energy or radiant light, it does not have a
carrier supply section.
• The contact type is used for measuring the temperature in
the range – 2000C to 15000C and the non-contact type
(Radiant light type) for temperature above 15000C
 Pressure sensor

• Analog pressure sensors are used to sense the

pressure of liquids and gases.
• Although a wide range of pressures from low
to high can be selected, the diaphragm method
of air-electric conversion is most widely used
for measuring instruments
 Flow sensor

• Flow sensors may be classified as those for liquid

gas and powder with most being for the Process
Automation (PA) field, which is allied to Factory
Automation (FA).
• Flow sensors are also classified by measuring
methods.
• Generally, they are used to measure the amount of
flow within a pipe.
• Depending on the specifications of the objects,
there are cases where measurements are not
possible
 MOVEMENT SENSORS

• The measurement of the motion has been heavily

applied to security systems.
• The Doppler Effect is an example of measure of
motion.
• This technology is being used in measuring motion.
• The Doppler Effect states that if a wave source
and corresponding receiver are moving relatively to
each other the frequency observed by the receiver
will be greater than or smaller than the actual
frequency
 Sensors in Robots
 Proximity sensors are used to sense the presence of an object
close to automated devices.
 In robotic applications sensors are needed for obstacle
detection, line tracing and direction monitoring
• Sensor for obstacle detection
The sensors need to see far and only a logic response is required.
• Sensor for line tracing:
It is normally required to distinguish between white surface and a
black one in order to provide guidance by demarcation. 
• Sensor for direction monitoring:
The obvious sensor to use is a compass which echoes the bearing
of the mobile in real time
 Time of flight sensors

• Time of flight sensors emit signal which is

transmitted through a medium.
• The transmitting time through the medium is
measured electronically.
• The distance traveled can be deduced.
• This is applicable in aeroplane in determining
the time of the place in certain areas
 MACHINE VISION SYSTEM

• A vision system uses industrial television

cameras (ITV) to process images called
“Machine vision” in US.
• In factory automation, vision system hereafter
referred to as “Factory vision system (FVS)”
with pattern recognition technology as the base,
are currently being used in unmanned equipment
to save manpower
 Elements of Factory Automation

 The typical Vision System of Factory Automation (FA) comprises:

• the image detecting unit,
• machine equipment unit and
• control unit
The image detecting unit comprises:
• the ITV camera,
• lighting device and
• optical system
Automated equipment for visual inspection

• Visual inspection by humans is based on analog

judgment and qualitative.
• VS use quantitative digital processing similar to
that of the CPU.
• If the image of optical system is analog and
color tone is included, digitizing is the basic
operation of VS.
• Digitizing expands to quantitative operation and
clears problems of visual inspection
 Purpose of visual inspection

 Differentiation between acceptable parts and

rejects by appearance.
 Sensing flaws and contamination

 Dimensional inspection of length, areas and

shapes
 Inspection of mixtures of different parts
 Classification and distribution

• One of the themes of VS is classification and

distribution of products moving on the assembly
line.
• In addition to the camera that views the shapes and
size of the products and outputs the decision by rank,
most lines include sensors for weight, color etc.
• The system is connected online to an information
processing device such as a personal computer since
extensive work is involved in tabulating
classification and distribution of data and preparing
documentation
Classification and distribution system with VS
Theme Industry Method
1. Distribution of General physical Sorts carton box by size and printing
carton box distribution pattern
2.Sorting of agricultural Food products Sorts fruits according to shape, size
and marine products grad (A, B, C, etc) and class (2L, L, M,
S, 2S, etc). Marine products and
vegetables are also sorted.
3. Mark code reading General industry Commercial Bar Code Readers (BCR)
and Color Code Readers (CCR) are
available, but the various codes are
read by VS.
 TRANSDUCERS AND ACTUATORS

A transducer
• Is a device that coverts the quantity being measured into an
optical, mechanical or more commonly electrical signal.
• The energy conversion process that takes place is referred to as
transduction
Actuator
• Is a device that is used to produce motion or action such as
linear or angular.
Why an actuator is a transducer?
• An actuator is also a transducer because it can change one type
of physical quantity (measurable), say electrical current into
another type of physical quantity, say rotation of a motor speed.
• Sometimes amplifiers are used to strengthen the controller
command signal to a sufficiently required quantity
 Classification of transducers

• Transducers are classified according to the

transduction principle involved and the form
of the measurand.
• Thus a resistance transducer for measuring
displacement is classified as a resistance
displacement transducer
• Most transducers consist of sensing element
and conversion or control element
 Transducer sensitivity

• The relationship between the measured and the

transducer output signal usually obtained by
calibration tests is referred to as the transducer
sensitivity.
i.e. Transducer sensitivity = Output-signal increment
Measured increment
 TRANSMISSION ELEMENT
 Gears:
• The gear interlocks with more than two gears and transmits the power and
revolution from one side to the other
• Gear backlash
• In general, backlash is idle between gears on a pitch circle. The purpose of
backlash is to prevent two points from contacting simultaneously. No backlash
may result in noise, overload, heating, seizure or damage to gears and bearings.
• So when assembling gears, backlash must be given in general.
• The ways to give backlash are;

-To deviate from center distance

- To deepen the input of tools manufacturing gears
 Transmission Element
 Belts

• For belts in the transmission mechanism of mechatronics, synchrobelts

and synchropulleys are usually used.
• The reasons for this are cited as follows:-

-no lubrication is required and the environment is maintained

-noise is lowest
-no skid
-distance between shafts is expandable
-lightweight is possible
-On the contrary, it is unsuitable for high speed and precision
positioning
 Transmission Element
Use of idler
• It is recommended not to use the idler as much as possible except
for the following inevitable cases. The reason for this is because the
use of the idler increases exhaustion due to bending of the belt.
The idler is recommended for:
• Tension adjustment when the distance between shafts is not
adjustable
• Division of a long span that causes belt vibration problems
• Guide to avoid obstacles
 Transmission Element
 How to use idler
• When using the idler, it must be used on the loose side and fixed
to use.
• Also it must be used as much as possible at an obtuse angle.
• When using the idler inside:
use a cluster pulley, at this time, use the idler close to the large
pulley in order not to make the angle of contact for the pulley too
small.
• When using the idler outside:
use a plane pulley for the idler and use the idler close to the
small pulley
 Transmission Element

Caution for belt use as a transmission element

For use and maintenance of the belt, it is necessary to pay
attention to the following:
• When inspecting the belt, the power should be turned off and
inspection is done when the machine has completely stopped.
• Attach a cover to the belt because water or oil limits the belt life
if either adheres to it.
• Use the belt at a temperature in the range of – 30 to 90 degrees
centigrade
 Transmission Element

 Transmission mechanism using balls and rollers

• As the transmission mechanism which is suitable

for automated system, the mechanism using a
rolling motion of the ball and roller is used in a
diverse area.
• Bearings and ball screws are good examples of
this application
 Transportation

 Transportation may be:

• Intermittent - where processing head is fixed and

• Continuous - where processing head is driving.

• The continuous transportation method tends to be used

mainly for works of larger amount of pieces per minutes.
• The intermittent transportation is the main stream of current
automatic process and automatic assembly.
• As the technology develops, the production speed of
intermittent transportation is increasing.
 Transportation
Transportation methods
Straight driving transportation:
• This is an intermittent transportation with free flow in many cases.
• A job is processed by attaching to an assembly jig or process jig on
a pallet.
Rotary transportation
• This is an intermittent transportation whereby there is a horizontal
circulation method to circulate (rotate) work on a horizontal
surfaces and up and down circulation method to circulate on a
vertical surface
 Transportation

 Conveyor

• The conveyor is a piece of transportation equipment which is

generally suitable for continual bulk transportation of various types
of materials e.g. boxes, baggage, coals, ores, gravels and grains etc.
• The conveyor has weak points which make it difficult to move since
the facility is fixed.
• To solve this, the method of connecting short conveyor units to each
other to make a line has been applied.
• The functions such as branch/junction of the line, detection of
obstacles and automatic stop by sensor have prevailed.
 Transportation
Types of conveyor

 Belt conveyor:

• Used for transporting boxes, baggage, coals, ores, gravels grains etc.
 Chain conveyor:

• Chains are connected to each other to make a loop.

• Transports materials placed on the steel or wood plate which is attached to the
mounting surface of the chain.
• They operate at a low speed with high loading stability.
 Screw type

• Caries objects along with screw face by turning the screw plate in flume with a
semi-circular section or pipe.
• The conveyor is mostly used to remove cuttings from machine tool.
 Transportation

 Trolley conveyor
• Is like a modified type of chain conveyor used to lay a
monorail of shaped steel under the ceiling in a plant and
connect metal fittings for traction to the small wheels by chain.
• Can bend vertically or horizontally and convey any type of
object such as cartons for home appliances, car bodies, engines
etc.
• It can also keep work-in process loaded on the conveyor
 ACTUATORS

 Actuators

• Actuators are mechanisms capable of generating force by

fluids, electrical and gaseous energy, as typified by pistons
and cylinders.
• With advancement in automation technology, as typified by
robots, high accuracy and compactness are demanded of
actuators.
• Hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical actuators are used to
drive automated devices.
 Actuators

 Actuators
• Hydraulic actuators are generally used when power is required
and pneumatic types of simple positioning.
• However, hydraulic types require large power supply equipment
and periodic maintenance is also necessary.
• On the other hand, applications for pneumatic types are also
limited from the viewpoint of accuracy and maintenance.
• Electrical actuators are, therefore, widely used in automated
devices such as robots
 Actuators

 Common actuators
The following are commonly used actuators in
automated systems.
• A DC motor
• Hydraulic pistons
• Induction motor
• Pneumatic cylinders
• Relay switches
• Solenoids
• Step motor.
 Actuators
 Solenoids
• This is a two position electromechanical
assembly consisting of core inside coil of wire.
• Core is usually held in one position by spring but
when the coil is energized core is forced to other
positions.
• Linear solenoid is common but Rotary solenoids
are also available.
• Solenoids are applied in a variety of electrical
controlled valves
 Actuators
 DC motor
• This is one of the simplest actuator that is used to create
spring in one direction.
The motor works as follows;
• A DC motor has two terminals and when DC flows in one
terminal, the other terminal being grounded.
• The motor changes direction of spinning (it spins in the
opposite direction) i.e. by switching polarity the direction
of spinning is reversed.
• The motors speed is controlled by the current supplied.
• Examples of applications that use DC machine are
washers, circular saw, blenders, grinding machine etc.
 Actuators
 Relays
• These are electromechanical devices that are common in
industries practical applications.
• This is essentially a switch that permits the opening and closing
by means of electro-magnetic structure
The relays work as follows
• When the push button is pressed an electric current flows through
the coil and generate a field in the magnetic structures.
• The resulting force draws the movable part towards the fixed part.
• The advantage of relay is that a small current can be used to
control the opening and closing of circuit that carries a large
current
• Its application is common in Industrial power switch and
Industrial control elements
 Actuators
 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators, may be broadly classified by form of operation into three types
which are:-
 Hydraulic cylinder,
 Hydraulic motor and
 Hydraulic oscillating motor 
Advantages of Hydraulic systems
• Incompressibility of the fluid helps positive action or motion
• Faster response unlike pneumatic systems where there are lager delays

Major components of hydraulic systems are hydraulic pumps that are used to supply
pressure that the system requires.

Three types of pumps that are commonly used are;

• Gear pump
• Vane pump
• Piston pump
 
 Actuators

 Hydraulic cylinder
• Hydraulic cylinders may be classified by function
into single-action and double-action types.
• In the single-action type, hydraulic force is used
to push out and a separate external force is used
to retract.
• In the double-action type, hydraulic force is used
in both directions
Actuators
 Actuators
 Pneumatic actuator
• Pneumatic actuators are devices that convert the energy of
compressed air into mechanical work.
• Although they are essentially the same as hydraulic actuators, the
compression ratio is greater and there is a slight difference in use
and structure of these devices since they feature low viscosity
• Pneumatic systems are systems operated with air or other gaseous
media.
• Pneumatics literally is pertaining to air. The atmosphere has one
set of fundamental laws governing the behavior of gaseous fluids.
• The commonly used gaseous fluid in pneumatics is air
 Actuators
 Characteristics of compressed air
• Amount:
Air is available everywhere for compression, in unlimited quantities.
• Transport:
Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over larger distances.
• Storage:
Compressed air can be stored in and removed from a reservoir.  
• Temperature:
Compressed air is insensitive to temperature fluctuations.
• Explosion proof:
Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire
• Cleanliness:
Compressed air is clean, no contamination. This is necessary, e.g.in the food,
wood textile and leather industries.
• Construction:
The operating components are of simple construction, so inexpensive.
 Actuators
 Characteristics of compressed air
• Speed:
Compressed air is a very fast working medium.
• Adjustable:
With compressed air components, speeds and forces are infinitely varied.
• Overload safe:
Pneumatic tools are operating components which are overloading safe. 
• Preparation:
The compressed air needs good preparation.
• Compressible:
Not possible to achieve uniform/constant piston speeds with compressed air.
• Force requirement:
Compressed air is economical only up to 30,000 N.
• Exhaust air:
The exhaust air is loud (noisy).
• Costs:
Compressed air is a relatively expensive means of conveying power
 Selection of compressors

Since compressed air is to be used in the

pneumatic systems, then the atmospheric air needs
to be compressed by compressors
Selection of compressors
They are selected based on the following features:
• Delivery volume:
This is the amount of air the compressor delivers.
Delivery volumes are specified into two ways
- theoretical delivery volume and
- effective delivery volume
 Pressure

Pressure is divided into two categories, which are:

• Working pressure:
This is the compressor outlet pressure or the pressure in
the receiver and the pressure in the pipelines to the user.
• Operating pressure:
This is the pressure required at the operating position, in
most cases, the operating pressure is 600 kPa (or 6 bar
or 87 psi). The working data for the elements are
therefore given for this pressure.
Constant pressure is essential for reliable and accurate
operation.
 Drive type:

• They are normally driven by either an electrical motor or by

an internal combustion engines In factories, electrical
motors drive compressors. If the compressor plant is not
stationary, the drive is mostly by means of internal
combustion engines.
• Regulation:
In order to match the delivery volume of the compressor to
the fluctuating consumption, it is necessary to regulate the
compressor. Various types of regulation are available for this
purpose. The delivery volume is regulated between the
adjustable limiting values of maximum pressure and
minimum pressure
 Cooling:

• When compressing air in the compressor heat is

generated and must be removed.
• The most suitable type of cooling for the compressor
depends on the amount of heat generated.
• Cooling fins on smaller compressors allow the heat to
be removed by radiation.
• Larger compressors are equipped with an additional fan
to remove heat.
• In the case of a compressor plant with a drive power in
excess of 30 kW, air-cooling is no longer sufficient.
• The compressors are then equipped with water
circulation cooling or fresh water-cooling
 Installation site:

• The compressor station should be installed in a

room on its own and sound-proofed towards
the outside.
• The room should be well ventilated, and the
free air should be as cool, dust free, and dry as
possible
 Compressed air receiver
• The compressed air receiver serves to stabilize the compressed air
supply.
• It smoothens pressure fluctuations in the network when air is consumed.
In addition, the large surface area of the receiver cools the air.
• Thus, a portion of the moisture in the air is separated as water directly
from the receiver.
• The size of the compressed air-receiver depends on:
- Delivery volume of the compressor.
- Air consumption.
- Network (whether additional volume).
- Type of regulation.
- Permissible pressure difference in the network
 Types of Compressors
The type of the compressor used depends on the operational
demands with regard to working pressure and delivery
volume. 
There are two groups of compressors:
 Piston compressors:
They operate on the principle of displacement, where air is
compressed by containing it in a chamber and then reducing
the volume of this chamber. They are called reciprocating
piston compressors and rotary piston compressors. 
 Flow compressors:
They operate on the principle of airflow, where air is drawn
in on one side and compressing it by mass acceleration.
Sometimes they are called Turbo-compressors
 Pneumatic- control systems

Pneumatic- control systems consist of three (3)

parts:

•Signal components.
• Control components.
•A working components.
The signal and control components influence the
operating sequence of the working elements, and
they are called VALVES
 Valves:

 Valves are devices for controlling or regulating start, stop and /

or direction as well as pressure or flow of a pressure medium
conveyed by a hydro-pump or stored in a container.

 They are divided into five (5) groups according to their

function:
 
• Directional control valves (DCV) or way valves.
• Non-return valves.
• Pressure control valves
• Flow control valves
• Shut-off valves
 Air Service Unit symbol

 The air service unit is the combination of the

following:
• Compressed air filter.
• Compressed air regulator.
• Compressed air lubricator.
 The application and the control system demand
determine the correct combination, size and type
of these elements. 
 Air service unit is fitted at each control system in
the network to ensure the quality of air for each
individual task
 Compressed air filter:

• It has the job of removing all contaminants from

the compressed air flowing through it as well as
waters which has already condensed.
• The compressed air enters the filter bowl through
guide slots.
• Liquid particles and larger particles of dirty are
separated centrifugally collecting in the lower part
of the filter bowl.
• The collected condensate must be drained before
the level exceeds the maximum condensate mark,
as it will otherwise be re-entrained in the air stream
 Compressed air regulator and Compressed
air-lubricator

 Compressed air regulator

The purpose of a regulator is to keep the operating
pressure (secondary pressure) virtually constant
regardless of fluctuations in the line pressure
(primary pressure) and the air consumption
 Compressed air-lubricator
The purpose of a regulator is to lubricate the moving
parts of the system, to provide cooling to system/ to
dissipate heat from the system
 MICROCONTROLLERS

 There have been two directions in the ongoing advances of microprocessor

technology.
 One direction supports central processing unit. (PUs) for the work station industry
where the main constraints are high speed and large work size (32 and 64 Bits).
 The other direction includes development of micro controller which is a single
clip integrated circuit (IC) containing specialized circuits and functions that are
applicable to mechatronics/automated systems design.
 Micro controller contains a microprocessor memory input/output capability and
other on chip resources.
 It’s basically microcomputer single integrated circuits
 What is a Micro controller?
• A Micro controller is essentially an inexpensive single chip computer.
• Single chip means the entire computer system lies within the confines of a
shiver of silicon encapsulated inside the plastic housing of an integrated
circuit.
• The Micro controller has features similar to those of a standard personal computer
 Key features of Micro Controller

 Micro Controllers
• Provide a mall and flexible control Platform that
can be easily embedded in a mechatronic system
• Can be programmed to perform a wide range of
control tasks
 The key features of Micro Controller are:
• capability to upload a program
• capability to store a program
• capability to run a program
 Reasons for use of Micro controllers
 Reasons that have driven the development and wide
use of micro controllers are:
• they are inexpensive (low cost) single chip Computers
• small size as compared to conventional hardwired-relays,
coils, counters timers etc.
• They can be easily embedded in larger electronic circuit
designs.
• Extremely Versatile, flexible in changing characteristics on
use.
• Their ability to upload, store and run unique programs
• The math and logic functions allow the micro controllers
to mimic sophisticated logic and electronic circuits.
 Types of Micro controllers

 Popular micro controllers that are in great

demand for realizing mechatronics/automated
system include:
• Microchips PIc
• Motorollas 78 HC 11
• Intels 8096
 Application of Microcontroller
 Micro controllers are used in wide variety of
applications including ;
• home appliances,
• entertainment equipment,
• telecommunication equipment,
• automobiles tracks,
• airplanes,
• toys and office equipment.
All these equipment require a device that has a sort
of intelligent control on various inputs.
 Application of Microcontroller
Examples
Micro controllers in automobile, there are various control sub systems to control various areas:-
 Cruise control speed
 Anti-baking braking
 Ignition
 Key less entry
 Fuel control
 Air
 Environmental control
 
Micro controller in micro ovens
 Monitors control panels
 Control timing
 Control cooking functions
•  
Office fax machine
 Paper control
 Sending and receiving data control
 Provision of users later face with menu
Components of micro controller
 Components of micro controller
 CPU: The CPU executes the software stored in Rom and control the
micro controller
 RAM: is for storing settings and values during the execution of the
program/software
 ROM: used to store the program and any permanent data
 I/O port: allows binary data to be transferred to and from micro
controllers using external pins
 AD/DA: for controlling digital signal data to analogy or analog to
digital
 Serial communication: for making communication with the host
computer or other controllers
 Timers: used to help create delays or ensure event to occur at precise
time interval e.g. reading a value of a sensor after two seconds.
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION (ADC)

 Continuous Analog Signals from the process

must be converted to Digital values to be used
by the computer and
 Digital data generated by the computer must
be converted to Analog Signal to be used by
analog actuator
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

• The procedures for converting an analog signal

from the process into Digital form typically
consist of the following steps, (hardware
illustration is given in figure below).
 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION
 Sensor – this is measuring device that generates analog
signal
 Signal conditioning – is a switching device connected in
series with each input channel from the process. It is used
to time share the analog to digital.
 Multiplexer – it is a switching device connected in series
with each input channel from the process. It is used to time
share the analog to digital.
 Amplifier – used to seek the incoming signal up or down to
be compatible with the range of the analog to digital
converter.
 Analog to digital converter – it functions to convert
incoming signal to digital converter part.
 Selecting Analog to Digital Converter Factors

 For a given application one can use the following

factors to select the relevant ADC.
• Sampling rate: It is the rate at which the continuous
analog signals are sampled
• Conversion time: It is the time interval between
incoming signal and when digital value is determined
by quantization and encoding.
• Resolution of ADC: It is the precision with the
analog
• Conversion method: One has to know which method
is available for encoding the analog to its digital
 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERSION (DAC)

 This is the reverse of Analog to digital conversion process.

 The DAC transforms the digital output of the computer into a
continuous signal to drive an analog actuator or other devices.
 Digital to analog conversion consist of two steps.
•  Decoding
This is a step in which the digital output of the computer is
converted into series of analog values of discrete moments in
times.
• Data holding
This is a step in which each successive value is changed into
a continuous signal used to drive the analog actuator during
sampling
 LOGIC CONTROL

 A logic control system referred as combined logic

control is a switching system whose output at any
moment is determined exclusively by the values
of inputs.
 A logic control system has no memory and does
not consider the previous value of input signal in
determining output signal
 LOGIC CONTROL

 Example
 Suppose that in a machine loading application, the robot is
programmed to pick up a raw work part from a known stopping
point along the conveyor and place into forging process. These
conditions must be satisfied to initiate the loading cycle.
• The raw work part must be at the stopping point
• The forge press must have completed the process in the previous
part from the die
• The die must be set in the press forge
•  How is this done?
• The first condition can be indicated by a limit switching that
senses the presence of the part of the conveyors stop and
transmit signal to the robot.
• Can be indicated by the forge process which sends an ON signal
 LOGIC CONTROL

Example
• The third condition can be detected by photo
detector located so as to detect the presence or
absence of die. When the finished part is
removed from the die an ON signal is
transmitted.
• All of the three conditions above, of this ON
signal, have to be received by the Robot to
initiate the next work
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

 What is PLC?
• A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a
controller that executes a task according to a
program which is not hard-wired.
• A PC monitor inputs signals and provides output
signals.
• When changes are detected in the signals, the PC
reacts through the user-programmed internal
logic to produce output signals.
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

 Merit
• In case of any modification, changing the wiring itself
is necessary with the relay-based control system.
• However, any change is merely possible with PLC by
simply reprogramming the PC to accommodate the
change.
• The use of PC
• PCs are used in various places. Most automated
factories are controlled by a control system, the heart
of which is made of PCs
 PC type selecting points

• Max number of I/O points

• Program capacity
• Data memory capacity
• Basic processing speed
• Communication (link systems)
HARDWARE Composition
 Input unit
Input section (input unit)
• Input devices such as push-buttons, sensors and limit
switches can be connected to the input section.
• The input section gathers information from the outside
environment and sends it on to the CPU.
 
 Types of input units
Types of input units usually depend on the input voltage or
number of inputs
• DC input unit
• AC input unit
• AC/DC input unit
 Output unit
 Output section :( output unit)
• Output devices such as solenoids, motors, indicator
lights and alarms can be connected to the output section.
• The output section is where the calculation results from
CPU are output to the outside environment.
 
 Type of output units
• Types of output units usually depend on the rated-load
voltage or the number of outputs.
• E.g. Transistor output unit, Triac output unit, Relay
output unit
 Other sections
 Memory section
• The memory section is the section where the program is stored.
• Types of memory
- RAM (Random Access Memory)
- EP – ROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
- EEP – ROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 CPU section: CPU unit
• The CPU fetches instructions from memory and executes the contents.
• The input and output signals are transferred between input/output units and CPU units
through the connectors and electrical pathways of backplanes.
 Power Supply Section
• This section supplies the power to each section.
 Programming Devices
• These are devices which serve as user interfaces which can be used to program or
monitor PCs.
 Expansion 1/O racks
• The number of 1/O points and expansion 1/O racks depends on the CPU types
 I/O NUMBER
 An I/O number is a relay number used for
assigning I/O signals one by one to the terminals
of the input unit and output unit.
 Of the five digits used to identify a relay, the
upper three digits are called the CH number
(word number) and the lower two digits are
called bit number.
 I/O NUMBER
• The bit number ranges from 00 to 15.
• 1CH (word) is a unit which identifies or contains 16
bits. 
• Which number associates with which unit depends on
the type of the units.
• Standard 1/O unit: The CH (words) is allocated
according to the slots of backplanes to which the units
are mounted.
• High – density 1/O unit: The CH (words) is specified by
the work-setting switches located on the front of the unit
 PLC EXPRESSING METODS

 Ladder diagram
• Ladder diagram is a kind of programming
system which is a variation on normal circuit
diagrams.
• Ladder diagrams, power sources are omitted
from the diagram.
• Relay numbers are used rather than device
names to reference 1/O devices.
• .
 Comparison of Representations

• The following diagram shows a comparison of

two representations
 LD/LD NOT/OUT/END (01)

 LD: the first contact point of each branch connected

to the bus line is always coded using the LD (load)
instruction. This type of contact point is called “A”
contact point.
 LD NOT: the LD NOT instruction is used to invert a
contact point affected by the LD instruction. This
type of contact point is called “B” contact point.
 OUT: the OUT instruction is used to represent a coil.
 END(01): the END instruction indicates the end of
the program
Ladder Diagram

 Expressing PLC using ladder diagram

 Coding (Mnemonic) method
• This method makes use of ADDRESS,
INSTRUCTION AND DATA to express the
programmable logic controller (PLC)
 Expressing PLC using Coding (Mnemonic) method
Address Instruction Data
00000 LD 00000
00001 OUT 00100
00002 LD NOT 00001
00003 OUT 00101
00006 END (01)  
 AND/AND NOT INSTRUCTIONS

 AND: the AND instruction connects in series the given contact

point with the contact used in the previous instruction.
 AND NOT: The AND NOT instruction is used to invert a contact
point affected by the AND instruction.
• Ladder diagram Coding method
Address Instruction Data
00000 LD 00000
00001 AND 00001
00002 OUT 00100
00003 LD 00002
00004 AND NOT 00003
00005 OUT 00101
00006 END (01)  
 OR/OR NOT INSTRUCTIONS

 OR: the OR instruction connects in parallel the given contact

point with the contact point used in previous instruction.
 OR NOT: the OR NOT instruction is used to invert a contact
point effected by the OR instruction

• Ladder diagram Coding Method

Address Instruction Data

00000 LD 00000
00001 OR 00001
00002 OUT 00100
00003 LD 00002
00004 OR NOT 00003
00005 OUT 00101
00006 END (01)  
 AND LD INSTRUCTION

• The AND LD instruction connects two blocks in series. It

logically ANDs the execution conditions produced by two logic
blocks
• Ladder diagram Coding method
 OR LD INSTRUCTION

• The OR LD instruction connects two blocks in parallel. It

logically ORs the execution conditions produced by two logic
blocks.
• Ladder diagram Coding method
 CONVERSION OF LADDER DIAGRAM TO
CODING AND VISE VERSA

 Why convert ladder diagram to coding?

• Ladder diagrams are not recognized by the PLC, so it
is necessary that they are first converted to
Mnemonic form (coding) which is recognized by the
PLC.
• A PLC executes the program according to the order of
mnemonic
 CAUTION
 A number of important rules must be kept in mind
when writing programs for the PLC.
• Programs must be ended with END (01) instruction.
A program without END instruction is not executed.
• Output Relays must be used as contact points.
Further, a contact point may be used as “A” or “B”
type contact point as many times as desired.
 An output Relay cannot be directly connected to the
bus line. Instead a special Relay 25313 (always ON)
must be used as dummy to counter this situation
 CAUTION

• If a Relay number is duplicated in more than one output

instruction, the earlier circuits have no effect on the Relay’s output