Chapter 13

Reacting Mixtures
and Combustion
 Learning Outcomes
►Define complete combustion, theoretical air,
enthalpy of formation, and adiabatic flame
temperature, and compute values associated with
each term.
►Develop balanced reaction equations for
combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
►Apply mass, energy, and entropy balances to
closed systems and control volumes involving
chemical reactions.
►Conduct exergy analyses, including chemical
exergy and the evaluation of exergetic
efficiencies.
 Exergy Analysis
►Exergy analysis contributes to the goal of
making more effective use of nonrenewable
energy resources: natural gas, coal, and oil, by
determining the locations, types, and true
magnitudes of waste and loss in systems fueled
by such resources.
►Exergy analysis is also relevant for designing
more effective thermal systems of all types,
guiding efforts to reduce inefficiencies in such
systems, and evaluating system economics.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►When you fill an automobile’s fuel tank with
gasoline, it is the exergy of the gasoline you seek
and for which you pay.
►Exergy is not just another aspect
of energy. Exergy and energy are
related but distinctly different
quantities. These differences are
explored with the figure at right,
which shows an isolated system
consisting initially of a small
container of fuel surrounded by air
in abundance.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►Suppose the fuel burns so finally there is a slightly
warm mixture of air and the combustion products
formed.
►Since air is abundantly present, the
temperature of the final mixture is
nearly the same as the initial air
temperature.
►The total quantity of energy
associated with the system is constant
because no energy transfers take
place across the boundary of an
isolated system and, by the first law of
thermodynamics, energy is conserved.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►The initial fuel-air combination has a
much greater potential for use than
the final warm mixture. For instance,
the fuel might be used to generate
electricity, produce steam, or power a
car whereas the final warm mixture is
clearly unsuited for such applications.
►In fact, during the process shown in
the figures the initial potential for use is
predominately destroyed owing to the
irreversible nature of that process.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►The fuel present initially also has
economic value, but economic value
diminishes as fuel is consumed.
The final warm mixture has
negligible economic value.
►Exergy is the property that
quantifies the potential for use and
it is exergy that has economic value.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►Exergy is the maximum theoretical work obtainable
from an overall system of system plus exergy reference
environment as the system passes from a specified state
to equilibrium with the environment.
In this definition, exergy reference environment refers to a
thermodynamic model for the Earth and its atmosphere.
►If temperature and/or pressure of a system differ from
that of the environment, the system has exergy. More
precisely, the system has a thermomechanical
contribution to its exergy. This contribution suffices for the
applications of Chapter 7. Another contribution – chemical
exergy – arises when there is a composition difference
between the system and environment. Chemical exergy is
the focus of our present study of exergy.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►For conceptual and computational ease, we think of
the system passing to equilibrium with the
environment in two steps. With this approach, exergy
is the sum of two contributions: the thermomechanical
and the chemical. Thus on a unit mass basis, the
total exergy is

(Eq. 13.46)

where the underlined term is the thermomechanical

contribution (Eq. 7.2) and ech is the chemical contribution.
 Reviewing Exergy Concepts
►Similarly, the total flow exergy at an inlet or exit of
a control volume is

(Eq. 13.47)

where the underlined term is the thermomechanical

contribution (Eq. 7.14) and ech is the chemical contribution.
 Exergetic Efficiency of an Engine
►An exergy accounting for the engine at steady-
state reads:
►Exergy in: W
∙
∙
● Fuel, E F (predominately
chemical exergy) E∙ F
● Combustion air (typically
negligible when coming
directly from the ambient)
►Exergy out:
∙
● Power developed, W
● Combustion products (thermomechanical and
chemical exergy)
● Accompanying stray heat transfer to the surroundings
►Exergy destroyed within the engine: (predominately
exergy destroyed during combustion)
 Exergetic Efficiency of an Engine
►If the exergy carried out with the combustion
products and stray heat transfer are regarded as
losses, an exergetic efficiency gauging the extent
to which the exergy of the fuel is converted to power
is
W
∙

W
  (1) E∙ F

EF
 Exergetic Efficiency of an Engine
►Example: An internal combustion ∙
W
engine develops 50 hp for a fuel input
of 1.98×10–3 kg/s. If the exergy of the E∙ F

fuel is 47,000 kJ/kg, evaluate the

exergetic efficiency given by Eq. (1).

Inserting values

kJ
0.7457
50 hp s

 3 kg  kJ  1 hp
1.98  10  47,000 
 s  kg 

 = 0.40 (40%)
 Exergetic Efficiency of a Reactor
►An exergy accounting for the reactor at steady-
state reads: Fuel at ∙
►Exergy in: 0
Fuel E
T ,p
0
F

∙
● Fuel, E F (predominately
Air at
chemical exergy) 0 TAir
0 ,p

● Combustion air ∙
E
products

(typically negligible when

coming directly from the
ambient)
►Exergy out:
∙
●Combustion products, Eproducts (thermomechanical and
chemical exergy)
● Accompanying stray heat transfer to the surroundings
►Exergy destroyed within the reactor: (predominately
exergy destroyed during combustion)
 Exergetic Efficiency of a Reactor
►Regarding the exergy carried out with stray heat
transfer as a loss, an exergetic efficiency for the
reactor is
E products

E
F
►For the reactor of Example 13.16,
●  = 70.3% when there is complete combustion with
the theoretical amount of air.
●  = 46.3% when there is complete combustion with
400% of the theoretical amount of air.
Note that excess air dilutes the combustion products,
lowering the temperature of the products and thus the
exergy of the products.
 Evaluating Chemical Exergy
►To evaluate chemical exergy values, the first step
is to specify the exergy reference environment –
that is, to model appropriately the Earth and its
atmosphere.
►Modeling considerations include
►Specifying the environmental temperature T0
and pressure p0.
►Specifying a set of reference substances with
concentrations closely corresponding to the
chemical makeup of the natural environment.
 Evaluating Chemical Exergy
►Reference substances may include
►Gaseous components of the atmosphere: N2,
O2, CO2, H2O(g), and other gases.
►Solid substances from the Earth’s crust.
►Substances from the oceans.
►At one extreme, such considerations lead to tables
of “standard” chemical exergy values that stem from
painstaking modeling programs. At the other
extreme, relatively elementary modeling provides
chemical exergy values useful for at least
preliminary engineering analysis.
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►Standard molar chemical exergy values of selected
substances, in kJ/kmol, are provided in Table A-26, together
with a brief description of the underlying rationale for each of
the two models employed. TABLE A-26

Sta nd ard Mo la r Che m ic al Exe rg y, e ch (kJ/ km o l), o f Se le cte d Subs ta nc e s at 2 9 8 K a nd p 0

Sub s ta nc e Fo rm u la Mo d e l Ia Mo de l IIb
Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 ,9 5 0 3 ,9 7 0
Ca rb o n d io x id e CO 2 (g ) 1 4 ,1 7 5 1 9 ,8 7 0
Wa t e r H2 O(l) 45 900
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 3 5 ,2 5 0 2 3 6 ,1 0 0
Me t h a n e CH 4 (g ) 8 2 4 ,3 5 0 8 3 1 ,6 5 0
Oct a n e C8 H1 8 (l) – 5 ,4 1 3 ,1 0 0
Et h a n ol C2 H5 OH(l) 1 ,3 4 2 ,0 8 5 1 ,3 5 7 ,7 0 0

►Model II, or variations of it, is commonly used in practice.

Model I is provided only to show for comparison the result of an
alternative modeling effort. Despite differences in modeling
approach there is acceptable agreement between the two sets
of data.
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►In most cases the value of the standard chemical
exergy can be obtained from the engineering literature.
Still, in principle, if the value of the standard chemical
exergy of a substance is unknown, it can be evaluated by
considering a reaction of that substance with other
substances for which the standard chemical exergy values
are known.
►To illustrate, consider
the figure where a
hydrocarbon CaHb
reacts completely with
O2 to form CO2 and
H2O(l), each substance
at T0, p0.
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►Applying energy, entropy, and exergy balances, and
representing the result in terms of Gibbs functions for
computational ease, the standard chemical exergy of CaHb is

(Eq. 13.44b)

where F denotes the substance represented by CaHb

►The first term on the right involves the Gibbs function at T0, p0
of each substance appearing in the reaction equation. The
coefficient of each of these Gibbs function terms corresponds to
its coefficient in the reaction equation.
►As shown by the underlined term of this expression, the only
standard chemical exergy data required is for CO2, H2O(l), and
O2. Each of these terms has the same coefficient as in the
reaction equation.
 Standard Chemical Exergy
Example: Consider an application of Eq. 13.44b to the
case of hydrogen, H2, when T0 = 298.15 K (25oC), p0 = 1
atm. For this application we can use Gibbs function data
directly from Table A-25 and standard chemical exergies
from Table A-26 (Model II), since each source
corresponds to 298.15 K, 1 atm.
►Here a = 0, b = 2 and the reaction underlying Eq. 13.44b
 b b
C a H b   a  O 2  aCO 2  H 2 O(l)
 4 2

reduces to read H2 + 0.5O2 → H2O(l)

►Equation 13.44b reduces to
 
eFch  g F  0.5 g O 2  g H 2O(l) (T0, p0 )  eHch2O(l)  0.5eOch2 (1)
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►From Table A-25 we get

g f,oH 2  0 kJ/kmol g f,oO 2  0 kJ/kmol

g f,oH 2O  237,180 kJ/kmol

Th e rm o ch e m ical Pro p e rtie s o f Se le cte d Su b s tance s at 2 9 8 K an d 1 atm TABLE A-25
He ating Valu e s
Enth alp y o f Gib bs Fu nctio n Ab s o lute
Fo rm atio n , o f Fo rm atio n , Entro py,
Hig he r, Lo w e r,
Mo lar Mas s , h fo g fo so HHV LHV
Su bs tan ce Fo rm ula M (kg / km o l) (kJ/ km o l) (kJ/ km o l) (kJ/ km o l∙K) (kJ/ kg ) (kJ/ kg )
Ca rb o n C(s ) 1 2 .0 1 0 0 5 .7 4 3 2 ,7 7 0 3 2 ,7 7 0
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 .0 1 6 0 0 1 3 0 .5 7 1 4 1 ,7 8 0 1 1 9 ,9 5 0
Nit ro g e n N2 (g ) 2 8 .0 1 0 0 1 9 1 .5 0 – –
Oxyg e n O 2 (g ) 3 2 .0 0 0 0 2 0 5 .0 3 – –
Ca rb o n Mo n oxid e CO(g ) 2 8 .0 1 –1 1 0 ,5 3 0 –1 3 7 ,1 5 0 1 9 7 .5 4 – –
Ca rb o n d io x id e CO 2 (g ) 4 4 .0 1 –3 9 3 ,5 2 0 –3 9 4 ,3 8 0 2 1 3 .6 9 – –
Wate r H2 O(g ) 1 8 .0 2 –2 4 1 ,8 2 0 –2 2 8 ,5 9 0 1 8 8 .7 2 – –
Wate r H2 O(l) 1 8 .0 2 –2 8 5 ,8 3 0 –2 3 7 ,1 8 0 6 9 .9 5 – –
Hyd ro g e n p e ro x id e H2 O 2 (g ) 3 4 .0 2 –1 3 6 ,3 1 0 –1 0 5 ,6 0 0 2 3 2 .6 3 – –
Am m o n ia NH3 (g ) 1 7 .0 3 –4 6 ,1 9 0 –1 6 ,5 9 0 1 9 2 .3 3 – –
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►From Table A-26 (Model II) we get
ch
eO 2  3,970 kJ/kmol

ch
eH 2O  900 kJ/kmol
TABLE A-26
Sta nd a rd Mo la r Che m ic a l Exe rg y, e c h (kJ/ km o l), o f Se le cte d Su b s ta nc e s at 2 9 8 K an d p 0
Sub s ta n ce Fo rm u la Mo d e l Ia Mo d e l IIb
Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 ,9 5 0 3 ,9 7 0
Ca rb on d iox id e CO 2 (g ) 1 4 ,1 7 5 1 9 ,8 7 0
Wa t e r H2 O(l) 45 900
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 3 5 ,2 5 0 2 3 6 ,1 0 0
Me t h a n e CH4 (g ) 8 2 4 ,3 5 0 8 3 1 ,6 5 0
Oct a n e C8 H1 8 (l) – 5 ,4 1 3 ,1 0 0
Et h a n o l C2 H 5 OH(l) 1 ,3 4 2 ,0 8 5 1 ,3 5 7 ,7 0 0
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►Substituting values in Eq. (1)
eHch2   0  0.5(0)  (237,180)  (900)  0.5(3,970)

eHch2  236,100 kJ/kmol

►This value for the chemical exergy of H2 agrees

with the standard chemical exergy (Model II) from
Table A-26, as expected. TABLE A-26

Sta nd a rd Mo la r Che m ic a l Exe rg y, e ch (kJ/ km o l), o f Se le cte d Sub s tan ce s at 2 9 8 K an d p 0

Sub s ta n ce Fo rm u la Mo d e l Ia Mo d e l IIb
Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 ,9 5 0 3 ,9 7 0
Ca rb o n d io x id e CO 2 (g ) 1 4 ,1 7 5 1 9 ,8 7 0
Wat e r H2 O(l) 45 900
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 3 5 ,2 5 0 2 3 6 ,1 0 0
Me t h a n e CH4 (g ) 8 2 4 ,3 5 0 8 3 1 ,6 5 0
Oct a n e C8 H1 8 (l) – 5 ,4 1 3 ,1 0 0
Et h a n o l C2 H5 OH(l) 1 ,3 4 2 ,0 8 5 1 ,3 5 7 ,7 0 0
 Standard Chemical Exergy
►The chemical exergy of hydrocarbon fuels are
approximated by their fuel heating values. This can be
illustrated using heating value data from Table A-25 and
chemical exergy values (Model II) from Table A-26
converted to a unit mass basis, all in units of kJ/kg.
►For instance, using the liquid octane data,
►ech/HHV = 47,390/47,900 = 0.99
►ech/LHV = 47,390/44,430 = 1.07
Sub s ta nc e Mo d e l fo r HHV LHV e ch
Liq u id o cta n e Ga s o lin e 4 7 ,9 0 0 4 4 ,4 3 0 4 7 ,3 9 0
Liq u id e t h a n o l Bio fu e l g a s o lin e s u b s tit u t e a
2 9 ,6 7 0 2 6 ,8 0 0 2 9 ,4 7 0 b
Ga s e o u s m e t h a n e Na tu ra l g a s 5 5 ,5 1 0 5 0 ,0 2 0 5 1 ,8 5 0
a . In t h e U.S. t o d a y e t h a n o l is m a d e fro m t h e s t a rch o f co rn k e rn e ls . In Bra z il, wh ich is a ls o a
m a jo r e t h an o l p ro d u ce r, s u g a r ca n e is u s e d .
b . On a m a s s b a s is , t h e ch e m ica l e x e rg y o f e t h a n o l is a b o u t 2 / 3 o f t h a t fo r g a s o lin e , t h e re b y
g ivin g lo we r ve h icle fu e l m ile a g e wh e n u s in g a b le n d s u ch a s E8 5 (8 5 % e t h a n o l, 1 5 % g a s o lin e ).
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►To reinforce understanding of the chemical exergy
concept and the modeling used to develop working
expressions for chemical exergy, let us consider a
thought experiment involving:
1. A set of substances represented by CaHbOc
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
2. An exergy reference environment modeling Earth’s
atmosphere
Table 13.4. Exergy Reference Environment

►ye denotes the mole fraction of an environmental

component.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy

3. A system for visualizing

how work can be
obtained, in principle,
from the difference in
state of a substance
represented as CaHbOc
at T0, p0 and an
environment modeled
as in the previous table.
►This is Fig. 13.6.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►Important aspects of Fig. 13.6 include
1. The substance represented
as CaHbOc enters the control
volume at T0, p0.
2. Compounds present in the
environment enter the
control volume (O2) and exit
the control volume (CO2,
H2O(g)) at T0 and their
respective partial pressures.
3. The ideal gas model applies
to O2, CO2, and H2O(g).
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy

4. All substances enter and

exit with negligible kinetic
and potential energy effects.
5. Heat transfer between the
control volume and
environment occurs only at
temperature T0.
6. The control volume is at
steady state.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
7. For each substance
represented as CaHbOc, the
conservation of mass principle
is embodied in the reaction
equation provided in the figure,
whether or not a reaction is
required to conceive of the
chemical exergy.
8. The chemical exergy per mole
of CaHbOc, ech, is the ∙maximum
∙
theoretical value of Wcv/nF.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►Applying energy and entropy balances, and representing
the result in terms of Gibbs functions for computational ease,
we get

(Eq. 13.36)

where the subscript F denotes the substance represented by CaHbOc.

►The coefficient of each of these Gibbs function terms
corresponds to its coefficient in the reaction equation.
►The specific Gibbs functions are evaluated at the temperature
T0 and pressure p0 of the environment.
►In the special case where T0 = 298.15 K (25oC) and p0 = 1 atm,
the Gibbs function values can be simply read from Tables A-25,
which provide data at 298.15 K, 1 atm.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►Applying energy and entropy balances, and representing
the result in terms of Gibbs functions for computational ease,
we get

(Eq. 13.36)

where the subscript F denotes the substance represented by CaHbOc.

►In the logarithmic term of Eq. 13.36, only the environmental
substances O2, CO2, and H2O(g) appear. Each exponent
corresponds to the coefficient of that substance in the reaction
equation.
►The logarithmic term typically contributes only a few percent to
the chemical exergy magnitude.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
Example: Consider the case of methane, CH4, when
T0 = 298.15 K (25oC), p0 = 1 atm.
►Refer to the reaction of Fig. 13.6:
CaHbOc + [a + b/4 – c/2]O2 → aCO2 + b/2 H2O(g)

►Here a = 1, b = 4, c = 0 and the assumed reaction takes

the form
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O(g)
►Equation 13.36 reduces to

e ch  g F  2 g O 2  g CO 2  2 g H 2O(g)  R T0 ln
 


e 2
yO 2


(1)
  
 e
y y e
 CO 2 H 2O
2

 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►For this application we can use Gibbs function data
directly from Table A-25 since this source corresponds to
298.15 K, 1 atm.
g f,oCH 4  50,790 kJ/kmol g f,oCO 2  394,380 kJ/kmol

g f,oO 2  0 kJ/kmol g f,oH 2O(g)  228,590 kJ/kmol

Th e rm o ch e m ical Pro p e rtie s o f Se le cte d Su b s tan ce s a t 2 9 8 K an d 1 atm TABLE A-25

He ating Valu e s
En th alp y o f Gib b s Fu n ctio n Ab s o lu te
Fo rm atio n , o f Fo rm atio n , En tro p y,
Hig h e r, Lo w e r,
Mo lar Mas s , h fo g fo s o
HHV LHV
Su b s tan ce Fo rm u la M (kg / km o l) (kJ/ km o l) (kJ/ km o l) (kJ/ km o l∙K) (kJ/ kg ) (kJ/ kg )
Ca rb o n C(s ) 1 2 .0 1 0 0 5 .7 4 3 2 ,7 7 0 3 2 ,7 7 0
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 .0 1 6 0 0 1 3 0 .5 7 1 4 1 ,7 8 0 1 1 9 ,9 5 0
Nit ro g e n N2 (g ) 2 8 .0 1 0 0 1 9 1 .5 0 – –
Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 2 .0 0 0 0 2 0 5 .0 3 – –
Ca rb o n Dio x id e CO 2 (g ) 4 4 .0 1 –3 9 3 ,5 2 0 –3 9 4 ,3 8 0 2 1 3 .6 9 – –
Wa te r H2 O(g ) 1 8 .0 2 –2 4 1 ,8 2 0 –2 2 8 ,5 9 0 1 8 8 .7 2 – –
Wa te r H2 O(l) 1 8 .0 2 –2 8 5 ,8 3 0 –2 3 7 ,1 8 0 6 9 .9 5 – –
Me t h a n e CH4 (g ) 1 6 .0 4 –7 4 ,8 5 0 –5 0 ,7 9 0 1 8 6 .1 6 5 5 ,5 1 0 5 0 ,0 2 0
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►From Table 13.4
e e e
yO 2  0.2035 2  0.0003 2O  0.0312
yCO yH

Table 13.4. Exergy Reference Environment

 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►Substituting values into Eq. (1)

e ch  g F  2 g O 2  g CO 2  2 g H 2O(g)  R T0 ln

  
e 2
yO 2


 e
y   
y e
 CO2 H 2O
2


kJ
e ch
   50,790  2(0)  (394,380)  2(228,590)
kmol

  8.314
kJ  
 298.15 K  ln 
 0.2035 2 

  0.0003 0.0312 
kmol  K  2


ch kJ kJ
e  800,770  29,404
kmol kmol
ch kJ
e  830,174
kmol
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►This value (830,174 kJ/kmol) for the chemical exergy of
methane agrees with the standard chemical exergy
(Model II) from Table A-26, which is 831,650 kJ/kmol.
Sta nd ard Mo la r Che m ic al Exe rg y, e c h (kJ/ km o l), o f Se le cte d Sub s ta nc e s at 2 9 8 K an d p 0
Sub s ta nc e Fo rm u la Mo d e l Ia Mo d e l IIb
Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 ,9 5 0 3 ,9 7 0
Ca rb o n d io x id e CO 2 (g ) 1 4 ,1 7 5 1 9 ,8 7 0
Wat e r H2 O(l) 45 900
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 3 5 ,2 5 0 2 3 6 ,1 0 0
Me t h a n e CH4 (g ) 8 2 4 ,3 5 0 8 3 1 ,6 5 0
Oct a n e C8 H 1 8 (l) – 5 ,4 1 3 ,1 0 0
Et h a n o l C2 H 5 OH(l) 1 ,3 4 2 ,0 8 5 1 ,3 5 7 ,7 0 0

►This illustrates that the relatively elementary modeling

of the environment used in developing Eq.13.36 can yield
chemical exergy values in harmony with published
standard chemical exergy data.
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
Example: Consider the case of carbon dioxide, CO2,
when T0 = 298.15 K (25oC), p0 = 1 atm.
►Here a = 1, b = 0, c = 2 and the assumed reaction
CaHbOc + [a + b/4 – c/2]O2 → aCO2 + b/2 H2O(g)

takes the form CO2 → CO2 .

►In this case, CO2 enters the control

volume of Fig. 13.6 at T0, p0 and exits
e
at T0 and the partial pressure CO 2 ( p0 ) .
y

No chemical reaction occurs.

►Rather, in this case we can think of the work that could
be developed if the CO2 expands through a turbine from
e
pressure p0 to pressure CO 2 ( p0 ) .
y
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►With a = 1, b = 0, c = 2, Eq. 13.36 reduces to

 1 
e ch  R T0 ln  e 
 ( yCO ) 
 2 
e
►With yCO 2
 0.0003 from Table 13.4

 kJ   1 
e ch
  8.314  298.15 K  ln  
 kmol  K   ( 0.0003) 

ch kJ
e  20,108
kmol
 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy
►This value (20,108 kJ/kmol) for the chemical exergy of
carbon dioxide agrees with the standard chemical
exergy (Model II) from Table A-26, which is 19,870
kJ/kmol.
Sta nd a rd Mo la r Che m ic a l Exe rg y, e (kJ/ km o l), o f Se le cte d Su b s tan ce s at 2 9 8 K a nd p
ch
0

Sub s ta nce Fo rm u la Mo d e l Ia Mo d e l IIb

Ox yg e n O 2 (g ) 3 ,9 5 0 3 ,9 7 0
Ca rb on d io x id e CO 2 (g ) 1 4 ,1 7 5 1 9 ,8 7 0
Wa t e r H2 O(l) 45 900
Hyd ro g e n H2 (g ) 2 3 5 ,2 5 0 2 3 6 ,1 0 0
Me t h a n e CH4 (g ) 8 2 4 ,3 5 0 8 3 1 ,6 5 0
Oct a n e C8 H1 8 (l) – 5 ,4 1 3 ,1 0 0
Et h a n ol C2 H5 OH(l) 1 ,3 4 2 ,0 8 5 1 ,3 5 7 ,7 0 0

►This illustrates that the relatively elementary modeling

of the environment used in developing Eq.13.36 can yield
chemical exergy values in harmony with published
standard chemical exergy data.