Chapter 9

Gas Power Systems

 Learning Outcomes
►Conduct air-standard analyses of internal
combustion engines based on the Otto,
Diesel, and dual cycles, including the ability
to
►sketch p-v and T-s diagrams and evaluate
property data at principal states.
►apply energy, entropy, and exergy balances.
►determine net power output, thermal
efficiency, and mean effective pressure.
 Learning Outcomes
►Conduct air-standard analyses of gas turbine
power plants based on the Brayton cycle and
its modifications, including the ability to
►sketch T-s diagrams and evaluate property data at
principal states.
►applying mass, energy, entropy, and exergy
balances.
►determine net power output, thermal efficiency,
back work ratio, and the effects of compressor
pressure ratio on performance.
 Learning Outcomes
►Analyze subsonic and supersonic flows
through nozzles and diffusers, including the
ability to
►describe the effects of area change on flow
properties and the effects of back pressure on
mass flow rate.
►explain the occurrence of choking and normal
shocks.
►analyze the flow of ideal gases with constant
specific heats.
 Considering Compressible Flow
► In many applications of engineering interest, gases
move at relatively high speeds and exhibit significant
changes in specific volume (density). They include
►Flows through the nozzles and diffusers of jet
engines.
►Flows through wind tunnels, shock tubes, and steam
ejectors.
These flows are known as compressible flows.
► Next, we consider some important preliminaries, including
the
►momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow
►velocity of sound and Mach number
►stagnation state
 Momentum Equation for
Steady One-Dimensional Flow
►Recall Newton’s law of motion for a closed system: F = ma
►where F is the resultant force acting on a system of mass m
and a is the acceleration.
►We also need a form of Newton’s second law of motion
appropriate for the study of control volumes.
►For a control volume such as the one-inlet, one-exit control
volume shown here, momentum is carried in and out at the inlets
and exits, respectively, according to
Rate of
momentum
transfer in

Rate of
momentum (Eq. 9.30)
transfer out
 Momentum Equation for
Steady One-Dimensional Flow
►In words, Newton’s second law for a control volume is:
(= 0 at steady state)
time rate of change resultant force net rate at which momentum is
of momentum contained = acting on the + transferred into the control
within the control volume control volume volume accompanying mass flow

►The form of the momentum

equation for a one-inlet, one-exit
control volume at steady state is:

(Eq. 9.31)
 Velocity of Sound
► A sound wave is a small pressure disturbance that
propagates through a gas, liquid, or solid at a velocity
c that depends on the properties of the medium.
► Analyses using mass and momentum equations
supported by experimental data reveal that the
relation between pressure and specific volume
across a sound wave is nearly isentropic, and that its
velocity c – called the velocity of sound – is given by

(Eq. 9.36b)
 Velocity of Sound
►The special case of an ideal gas with constant
specific heats is used extensively in Chapter 9. For
this case, the relationship between pressure and
specific volume for fixed entropy is pvk = constant
where k is the specific heat ratio. Using this
relationship, Eq. 9.36b becomes

(Eq. 9.37)

► The velocity of sound is an intensive property

whose value depends on the state of the medium
through which sound propagates. While sound
propagates nearly isentropically, the medium itself
may be undergoing any process.
 Velocity of Sound
Example: Calculate the velocity of sound in air at
300 K and 650 K.
►From Table A-20 at 300 K, k = 1.4. Thus from Eq.
9.37
 8314 N  m  1 kg  m/s 2
c  1.4 (300 K) = 347 m/s (1138 ft/s)
 28.97 kg  K  1N

►From Table A-20 at 650 K, k = 1.37. Thus from Eq.

9.37
 8314 N  m  1 kg  m/s 2
c  1.37 (650 K) = 506 m/s (1660 ft/s)
 28.97 kg  K  1 N
 Mach Number
►In subsequent discussions, the ratio of velocity V at
a state in a flowing fluid to the value of sonic velocity c
at the same state plays an important role. This ratio is
called the Mach number, M.

(Eq. 9.38)

► Several important Mac h Number T erm

terms associated with M<1 S ubs onic

M=1
Mach number are S onic
M>1 S upers onic
shown in the table.
M >> 1 H ypers onic
M near 1 T rans onic
 Stagnation State Properties
►The h-s diagram shows a
compressible flow process. Stagnation state:
Associated with each state of the ho = stagnation enthalpy,
flow is a reference state known po = stagnation pressure,
as the stagnation state. To = stagnation temperature
►The stagnation state is the h po
state the flowing gas would ho
attain if it were decelerated to Vo = 0
zero velocity isentropically.
►By reducing an energy
balance for a hypothetical
diffuser that – in principle only – p
decelerates the gas, we get h Actual compressible
V flow process

(Eq. 9.39) s
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
► Owing to important applications for nozzles and
diffusers, the remainder of our study of compressible
flow centers on them.
►We begin by establishing criteria for determining
whether a nozzle or diffuser should have a converging,
diverging, or converging-diverging shape.
►These criteria are determined from differential
equations obtained in Sec.9.13.1 using isentropic
property relations. Since actual flows through well-
designed nozzles and diffusers are nearly isentropic
(Sec. 6.12.2), findings drawn from the differential
equations are observed for such flows as well.
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
►One of these equations relates velocity and
pressure changes in the direction of flow:

(Eq. 9.44)

►When velocity increases: dV > 0, then pressure

decreases: dp < 0.
►When velocity decreases: dV < 0, then pressure
increases: dp > 0.
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
►Another equation relates velocity and area changes in
the direction of flow:
(Eq. 9.45)

►There are four cases, each of which depends on the

local Mach number M:
►Subsonic nozzle: dV > 0 and M < 1 → dA < 0.
The duct converges.

Subsonic Nozzle
Velocity increases
Area decreases
Pressure decreases
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
►Another equation relates velocity and area changes in
the direction of flow:
(Eq. 9.45)

►There are four cases, each of which depends on the

local Mach number M:
►Supersonic nozzle: dV > 0 and M > 1 → dA > 0.
The duct diverges.

Supersonic Nozzle
Velocity increases
Area increases
Pressure decreases
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
►Another equation relates velocity and area changes in
the direction of flow:
(Eq. 9.45)

►There are four cases, each of which depends on the

local Mach number M:
►Supersonic diffuser: dV < 0 and M > 1 → dA < 0.
The duct converges.

Supersonic Diffuser
Velocity decreases
Area decreases
Pressure increases
 One-Dimensional Steady Flow
in Nozzles and Diffusers
►Another equation relates velocity and area changes in
the direction of flow:
(Eq. 9.45)

►There are four cases, each of which depends on the

local Mach number M:
►Subsonic diffuser: dV < 0 and M < 1 → dA > 0.
The duct diverges.

Subsonic Diffuser
Velocity decreases
Area increases
Pressure increases
 Exploring the Effects of Area Change
in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows
►Consider a converging section with subsonic flow connected
to a diverging section to form a converging-diverging duct.
►If the Mach number is unity at the end of the converging
section, and the flow continues to accelerate, the flow will
become supersonic in the diverging section.

M = 1 at the throat.
This is called a converging-diverging nozzle.

Velocity increases, pressure decreases

 Exploring the Effects of Area Change
in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows
►Consider a converging section with supersonic flow
connected to a diverging section to form a converging-diverging
duct.
►If the Mach number is unity at the end of the converging
section, and the flow continues to decelerate, the flow will
become subsonic in the diverging section.

M = 1 at the throat.
This is called a converging-diverging diffuser.

Velocity decreases, pressure increases

 Exploring the Effects of Area Change
in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows
►These findings indicate that a Mach number of
unity can occur only at the location in a nozzle or
diffuser where the flow area is a minimum. This
location of minimum area is called the throat.
►As shown in the following discussion, a Mach
number of unity does not necessarily occur at the
location where flow area is a minimum.
 Effects of Back Pressure on
Mass Flow Rate – Converging Nozzle
►Consider a converging duct with stagnation conditions
at the inlet, discharging into a region outside the nozzle
where the pressure pB – called the back pressure – can
be varied.
►We explore how the mass flow rate through the nozzle
and the pressure at the nozzle exit vary as the back
pressure is decreased while keeping the nozzle inlet
conditions fixed.
 Effects of Back Pressure on
Mass Flow Rate – Converging Nozzle
Case a. When pB = pE = po, there is no
  0.
flow: m
 Effects of Back Pressure on
Mass Flow Rate – Converging Nozzle
Case a. When pB = pE = po, there is no
flow: m  0.
Cases b and c. As pB is decreased, the
mass flow rate increases, flow is subsonic
throughout. The pressure at the nozzle
exit equals the back pressure.
 Effects of Back Pressure on
Mass Flow Rate – Converging Nozzle
Case a. When pB = pE = po, there is no
flow: m  0.
Cases b and c. As pB is decreased, the
mass flow rate increases, flow is subsonic
throughout. The pressure at the nozzle
exit equals the back pressure.
Case d. Eventually, as pB is decreased, a
Mach number of unity is attained at the
nozzle exit. The corresponding exit
pressure is called the critical pressure,
denoted by p*. The mass flow rate is the
maximum possible and the nozzle is said
to be choked.
 Effects of Back Pressure on
Mass Flow Rate – Converging Nozzle
Case a. When pB = pE = po, there is no
flow: m  0.
Cases b and c. As pB is decreased, the
mass flow rate increases, flow is subsonic
throughout. The pressure at the nozzle
exit equals the back pressure.
Case d. Eventually, as pB is decreased, a
Mach number of unity is attained at the
nozzle exit. The corresponding exit
pressure is called the critical pressure,
denoted by p*. The mass flow rate is the
maximum possible and the nozzle is said
to be choked.
Case e: Further reductions in pB below p*
have no effect on the flow conditions
within the nozzle. The mass flow rate
does not change.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
►Consider a converging-diverging duct with stagnation
conditions at the inlet, discharging into a region outside
the nozzle where the pressure pB – called the back
pressure – can be varied.
►We explore how the mass flow rate through the nozzle
and the pressure at the nozzle exit vary as the back
pressure is decreased while keeping the nozzle inlet
conditions fixed.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Cases a, b, c, and d
►Mass flow rate increases
as pB is reduced in steps
from po to pb, pc, and pd.
►Flow accelerates in the
converging section and then
decelerates subsonically in
Subsonic
Nozzle Subsonic Diffuser the diverging section.
►Eventually, when pB = pd,
the pressure at the throat
reaches p*, corresponding to
a Mach number of unity
there. At this condition the
flow is choked, and mass
flow rate cannot increase
with further decrease in back
pressure.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
►As back pressure is reduced
Cases e, f, and g below pd, the flow in the converging
section is unchanged.
►Normal shocks appear in the
diverging section. Across each
shock, there is an abrupt and
irreversible increase in pressure
accompanied by an abrupt
Subsonic decrease from supersonic to
Supersonic Nozzle
Nozzle
upstream of
subsonic flow.
normal shock ►As the back pressure is reduced,
the shocks move downstream until
the normal shock stands at the exit
plane (Case g).
•Flow is subsonic in the converging
section.
•At the throat, M = 1.
Subsonic Diffuser •Flow accelerates supersonically
downstream of
normal shock through the diverging section.
•Flow is subsonic just downstream
of the exit plane.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Cases h, i, and j ►Back pressure is less than
that of Case g.
►Flow in the nozzle is not
affected; adjustment occurs
outside the nozzle.
►Case h: Pressure increase
outside the nozzle involves
Subsonic
Nozzle Supersonic Nozzle an oblique compression
shock.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Cases h, i, and j ►Back pressure is less than
that of Case g.
►Flow in the nozzle is not
affected; adjustment occurs
outside the nozzle.
►Case h: Pressure increase
outside the nozzle involves
Subsonic
Nozzle Supersonic Nozzle an oblique compression
shock.
►Case i: Unique back
pressure for which no shocks
occur within or outside
nozzle.
 Effects of Back Pressure –
Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Cases h, i, and j ►Back pressure is less than
that of Case g.
►Flow in the nozzle is not
affected; adjustment occurs
outside the nozzle.
►Case h: Pressure increase
outside the nozzle involves
Subsonic
Nozzle Supersonic Nozzle an oblique compression
shock.
►Case i: Unique back
pressure for which no shocks
occur within or outside
nozzle.
►Case j: The gas expands
outside the nozzle through
an oblique expansion wave.
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►Depending on the back pressure,
a normal shock can stand in the
diverging section of a supersonic
nozzle, as shown in the figure
where the subscripts x and y denote, respectively, the
states just upstream and downstream of the shock.

►Since the thickness of the shock is small, there is

no appreciable change in flow area across the shock
and the only significant forces acting on the control
volume in the direction of flow are the pressure
forces. Additionally, for the control volume Q cv  0.
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►At steady state, mass, energy,
momentum, and entropy balances
reduce to give the following
relations between the upstream, x,
and downstream, y, locations.
Mass: (Eq. 9.46)

Energy: (Eq. 9.47a)

Momentum: (Eq. 9.48)

Entropy: (Eq. 9.49)

Since the shock is an irreversibility, the entropy
balance requires that the downstream specific entropy
sy is greater than the upstream specific entropy sx.
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►The mass and energy equations together with
property data for the particular gas combine to give a
curve on an h-s diagram called a Fanno line.

Mass:

Energy:
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►The mass and momentum equations together with
property data for the particular gas combine to give a
curve on an h-s diagram called a Rayleigh line.

Mass:

Momentum:
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►The upstream and downstream states x and y must
satisfy all three equations (mass, energy, and
momentum). Accordingly, the only simultaneous
solutions to them are at the intersections of the Fanno
and Rayleigh lines.
►Since sy > sx, state y falls
at the upper intersection of
the two curves where flow
is subsonic while state x
falls at the lower
intersection where flow is
supersonic.
 Modeling Normal Shocks
►The figure also locates the stagnation states
corresponding to the states x and y upstream and
downstream of the shock, respectively.
►Stagnation enthalpy
does not change across
the shock.
►Stagnation pressure
decreases across the
shock.
 Isentropic Flow Functions for Ideal
Gases with Constant Specific Heats
►Next, for the case of ideal gases with constant specific
heats, Eqs. 9.50 and 9.51 are introduced.
►They relate Stagnation state
temperature T and po
T
pressure p at a state of a
To
compressible flow to the Mo = 0
corresponding
stagnation temperature
To and stagnation
p
pressure po in terms of
T Compressible
the specific heat ratio k M flow
and Mach number M: s
 Isentropic Flow Functions for Ideal
Gases with Constant Specific Heats
►These equations are developed in Sec. 9.14.1 using mass
and energy balances together with isentropic property
relations.

(Eq. 9.50)

(Eq. 9.51)
 Isentropic Flow Functions for Ideal
Gases with Constant Specific Heats
►Additionally, the cross-sectional area A at a location where
the Mach number is M is related to the area A* that – for the
same mass flow rate and stagnation state – would be required
for sonic flow (M = 1).

(Eq. 9.52)

►The variation of A/A* with M is shown

in the figure for k = 1.4. The figure
shows that a unique value of A/A*
corresponds to any choice of M.
►However, for a given value of A/A*
other than unity, there are two possible Variation of A/A* with
values for the Mach number, one Mach number in isentropic
subsonic and one supersonic. flow for k = 1.4.
 Isentropic Flow Functions for Ideal
Gases with Constant Specific Heats
►Using Eqs. 9.50-
9.52, this tabulation
for k = 1.4 – Table
9.2 – can be
developed. Use of
Table 9.2 for
problem solving is
illustrated in
Example 9.15.
►Eqs. 9.50-9.52 are
readily programmed
for use with hand-
held calculators.
 Normal Shock Functions for Ideal Gases
with Constant Specific Heats

►Consider a normal shock

standing in a duct as shown in
the figure.
►The ratio of temperature across
the shock is

(Eq. 9.53)

►The ratio of pressure across the shock is

(Eq. 9.54)
 Normal Shock Functions for Ideal Gases
with Constant Specific Heats
►Consider a normal shock
standing in a duct as shown in
the figure.
►The Mach numbers across the
shock are related by

(Eq. 9.55)

►The ratio of stagnation pressures across the shock is

(Eq. 9.56)
 Normal Shock Functions for Ideal Gases
with Constant Specific Heats
►Using Eqs. 9.53-
9.56, this tabulation
for k = 1.4 – Table
9.3 – can be
developed. Use of
Table 9.3 for
problem solving is
illustrated in
Example 9.15.
►Eqs. 9.53-9.56 are
readily
programmed for
use with hand-held
calculators.