Preparation for

Construction

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed

BUILDING
Site Investigation
Excavation & Earthworking
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

CONSTRUCTION

PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION

 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building 1.1

1. PREPARATION FOR CONSTRUCTION
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & 1.1 STAKING-OUT THE BUILDING
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Staking-out -the process of relocating the point of
Site Investigation boundaries and property line of the site where the
Soil mechanics building is to be constructed.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and 1. Measure the required setback from the front corner monuments.
Retaining Structures Drive two stakes and stretch a string between them to represent the
Pavements front building line.

2. Measure the required side setback from one of the side lot lines
along the front building line. Drive stake A which will represent the
first corner of the building. From Stake A, measure the width of the
building and mark with stake B to obtain the other front corner.

3. Estimate right angles from stakes A and B and measure the

length of the building. In those two points, drive two temporary
stakes C and D which will mark the rear corners of the building. C-D
should be equal to A-B.

4. Draw lines along the diagonals A-D and B-C and ensure that
these are equal.

5. Transfer the building lines to batter boards.

Stakes – are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end driven into the
ground to serve as boundaries or supports of the batter boards.
Strings – are either plastic cords or galvanized wires strung across batter boards
and used to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

1.2 LAYING THE BATTERBOARDS
Laying the Batterboards 1.2 BATTER BOARDS
Formwork & Shoring • horizontal boards
Construction Tools & • establishes height of the footing trenches
Equipment and foundations
Major Parts of a Building • establishes height of finish floor levels
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation LEVELING
Soil mechanics
• done with a line level or carpenter’s level,
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
or with a transit
Slope Protection and • height of the batter boards may be level
Retaining Structures with or a little higher that the top of the
Pavements finished foundation.

Batter Boards – wood sticks or boards nailed horizontally at the stake which serve as the horizontal plane where the reference
point of the building measurements are established.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.2
Formwork & Shoring Notes:
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Spirit Level – an instrument or tool capable
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
of vertical and horizontal line
Soil mechanics check.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and Plumb Bob – a weight attached to a string,
Retaining Structures used for vertical line check.
Pavements

Plastic Hose Filled With Water – a

method of leveling horizontally batter
boards without transit.

3-4-5 Multiples With the Use of Steel PLUMB BOB

Tape Measure – a manual method of
squaring the corners of building lines in
staking.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

1.3 FORMWORK AND SHORING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.3 Formwork - used to shape and support fresh concrete until cured and
Construction Tools & able to support itself.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Shoring - temporary supports designed to carry forms for beams and slabs.
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation FORMS FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.
Soil mechanics
Materials used for form construction are:
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and 1. LUMBER FORMS
Retaining Structures • should only be partially seasoned.
Pavements
2. PLYWOOD FORMS.
• used where a smooth surface is required
• should be waterproof, Grade “A” and at
least ½” thick.

3. STEEL FORMS
• may be in the form of pans for concrete
joist construction or steel decking or
corrugated steel for concrete slabs and
slab-and-joist construction.

4. FIBER BOARDS

5. PHENOLIC BOARDS
Phenolic resin or phenol-formaldehyde resin –
is a thermosetting, waterproof, low-cost, mold-resistant, high
strength synthetic resin made from phenol and formaldehyde;
has good resistance to aging; used extensively in the
manufacture of adhesives, exterior and marine plywood,
laminated products, and molded articles.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards TWO MAJOR MATERIALS USED FOR SHORING CONSTRUCTION ARE:
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools & (1) LUMBER AND (2) STEEL.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
1.3.1 Lumber Forms and Shoring
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics • partially seasoned and to some extent • crude oil and petroline used to prevent
Excavation & Earthworking concrete from adhering to the wood and
Site Drainage slightly wet in order to prevent swelling and
Slope Protection and distortion of the forms; preserve the forms against damage by
Retaining Structures alternate wetting and drying; on forms
Pavements • dressed at least one side and both edges against surfaces which are to be plastered,
even for non-exposed surfaces; wetting with water will be sufficient since
oiling prevents adhesion of the plaster;
• joints in forms for columns, beams, and
girders made tight by dressing the lumber • wire ties or bolts and rods are used to
true to edge, forming square or butt joints; hold wall forms together; rods are preferred
tight joints in floor and wall panels obtained and should be arranged that upon removal
by using tongue-and grooved stock; of the forms, no metal shall be within one
inch of any surface; wire ties should be
• sizes of lumber used are: 2-in.stock for used only on light and unimportant work
columns, beams and girder bottoms; 1-in. where discoloring will not be
stock for floor panels and beam and girder objectionable;
sides; 2x4s for struts, posts, shores, and
uprights; 1 or 2-inch stock for cleats; • plywood forms used where a smooth
surface is required; should be waterproof,
Grade “A” and at least ½” thick.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards PLYWOOD FORMS
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools &
Equipment Knee
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed Brace
Site Investigation Ledger
Soil mechanics Kicker Metal or
Excavation & Earthworking Blocking Stringers
Wood Joists
Site Drainage
Jack
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
Adjustable
Metal Shores
Braced T-
and L-heads Bracing

Single Post
Wood Shore

WOOD SHORING METAL SHORING

Sills
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
COLUMN FORMS
Staking-Out the Building WOOD FORMWORKS
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Reusable forms may have a
Construction Tools & square or rectangular cross
Equipment section
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed YOKES are clamping devices
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
for keeping column forms and
Excavation & Earthworking tops of wall forms from
Site Drainage spreading under the fluid
Slope Protection and pressure of newly placed
Retaining Structures
Pavements concrete

WALL FORMS
SPREADERS usually of wood,
space and keep the wall or
forms apart
FORM TIES
PLYWOOD SHEATHING
HORIZONTAL WALERS
WOOD STUDS
SILL PLATE

BRACING
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards FORM TIES
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools &
Equipment SNAP TIES have notches or crimps that
Major Parts of a Building allow their ends to be snapped off below the
Foundation Bed concrete surface after stripping off the forms
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking small, truncated cones of wood, steel or
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and plastic attached to form ties to space and
Retaining Structures spread wall forms, leave a neatly finished
Pavements depression in the concrete surface to be
filled or left exposed

SHE BOLTS consist of waler rods that are

inserted through the form and threaded onto
the ends of an inner rod. After striping, the
waler rods are removed for reuse while the
inner rod remains in the concrete

a variety of wedges and slotted devices

tighten the formwork and transfer the
force in a form tie to the walers
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.3.2 Steel Forms and Shoring
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools &
Equipment Shoring is also used to support scaffolding works. Scaffolds are
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed temporary platforms designed to support workers and materials on the
Site Investigation face of a structure and to provide access to work areas above the
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking ground. Any elevated platform is called a scaffold.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

The major components of metal shoring are:

a) The ledger or the horizontal brace

b) The brace or the diagonal. This
component may be of the
adjustable and the fixed type.
c) The standard or the vertical
component.
d) Accessories: heads, jacks and
bases.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
SHORING COMPONENTS
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Standards
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

Ledgers

Adjustable
Braces

Fixed Braces
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards SHORING COMPONENTS
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Rapidshor Heads Adjustable Jacks
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

Base & Tilt Base

 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
SHORING ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.3
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
1. Ensure the ground and sleepers are 2. Assemble tower of 4 standards 3. Loosely fit the remaining
Soil mechanics
adequately prepared, and the base, jacks and ledgers. Fix braces to stabilize. components until majority of first
Excavation & Earthworking and standards are in correct positions. level complete. Check standards for
Site Drainage verticality and tighten ledgers.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

4. Position scaffold boards and ladders. 5. Additional ledgers and braces 6. Once all levels are complete,
can now be added, with additional jacks and heads can now be
braces. positioned.

7. Jack head levels finalized and any jack 8. Primary beams can be 9. Secondary beams can be
bracing required is now fitted. positioned, clamped and levels positioned and clamped to primary
checked. beams, plywood decking to follow.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building 1.4 CONSTRUCTION TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment 1.4 Tools and equipment employed in construction are grouped into four:
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics 1. Hand Tools are the tools that use power
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage delivered by man only.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements 2. Power Tools are those that employ power
supplied by forces other than that coming from
humans.

3. Equipment is a term that refers to large,

complex tools and machines that is designed to
do a particular job.

4. Heavy Equipment is equipment which is very

large and very powerful.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1. Hand Tools c. Framing square is
Staking-Out the Building a layout tool that is
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring A pry bar is used used to measure 90-
Construction Tools &
to force open degree angles at the
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building boards used in corners of framework
Foundation Bed
forming concrete. and joints. They can
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics also be employed to
Excavation & Earthworking
Measurement and determine cutting
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and layout tools are the angles on dimension
Retaining Structures following: lumber.
Pavements

a. Folding rule d. Level is a long,

and tape measure straight tool that
are the most contains one or more
common tools for vials of liquid and
measuring boards, used to determine if
pipe, wire, etc. the horizontal or
vertical is exact.
b. Digital rule is
used to measure e. Chalk line or chalk
relatively long box is used for
distances such as marking lines.
those in highway
construction.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Types of hammers are the
Staking-Out the Building following: Types of screwdrivers are:
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & a. Claw hammer is an a. Standard screwdriver has
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building ordinary hammer used to a flat tip and is designed to fit a
Foundation Bed drive or remove nails. standard slotted screw.
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
b. Phillips screwdriver has an
X-shaped tip and is used to
turn Phillips-head screws only.
b. Sledgehammer is a
heavy hammer used to drive
stakes into the ground and
to break up concrete and
stone.
c. Spiral ratchet screwdriver
is that which relies on a
pushing force rather than a
twisting force.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Types of handsaws are the
Staking-Out the Building following:
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & a. Ripsaw has chisel-like
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building teeth designed for ripping or
Foundation Bed cutting with the grain of
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics wood.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
c. Backsaw is a special
Slope Protection and type of handsaw that has a
Retaining Structures very thin blade and makes
Pavements
very straight cuts such as
those on trims and
mouldings.

b. Crosscut saw is used to

cut across the grain of wood.
d. Hacksaw is used to cut
metals.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Types of Chisels: b. Pipe wrench is
Staking-Out the Building used to turn round
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring a. Wood chisel is used to trim objects like pipes.
Construction Tools & wood and clear away excess
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building material from wood joints.
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking c. Brick trowel is
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
used to place and
Retaining Structures b. Cold chisel is used to trim trim mortar between
Pavements
metals. bricks or concrete
blocks.

d. Bull float is used

to smoothen out the
Types of specialized hand tools surface of wet
are the following: concrete.

a. Nail set is used to drive

finishing nails below the surface of
a wooden trim or molding. e. Blind riveter is
used to fasten
pieces of sheet
metal together.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
2. Power Tools b. Table saw is used for
Staking-Out the Building cutting large sheets of
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring Power drill is used wood and wood
Construction Tools &
to drill holes in wood, composites and consists
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building metal and concrete. of a blade mounted on an
Foundation Bed electric motor beneath a Table saw.
Site Investigation Power drill.
Soil mechanics Power screwdriver table-like surface.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
or screwgun is used
Slope Protection and to install and remove c. Portable circular saw
Retaining Structures screws. is used for cutting
Pavements
materials that are difficult
Types of power to cut with stationary Portable circular
Power screwdriver. tools. saw.
saws are the
following:
d. Power miter saw is a
a. Radial arm saw is circular saw mounted
used for crosscutting over a small table used to
wood and consists of cut various angles in
a motor-driven saw wood. Power miter saw.
blade that is hung on
an arm over a table. e. Saber saw is used to
cut curves or holes in
Radial arm saw. floors and roofs for pipes
and has a small knife-
shaped blade that moves
up and down. Saber saw.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0 Type of power
Type of power nailers and staplers
Staking-Out the Building hammers are:
Laying the Batterboards are the following:
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & a. Pneumatic a. Nailers or nail
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building hammer or guns fasten
Foundation Bed jackhammer is materials together by
Site Investigation Pneumatic nailer
Soil mechanics used to break shooting nails into
Excavation & Earthworking up concrete or the building material.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
asphalt paving. Pneumatic hammer.
Retaining Structures
Pavements
b. Powder-actuated
b. Rotary hammer is like an electric stud driver is a kind
drill that operates with both rotating of nailer that is
and reciprocating actions and is used powered by
to drill holes in concrete. gunpowder and is
used to drive long
pins into wood, steel Powder-actuated
or concrete. stud driver.

c. Staplers are like

nailers but are
loaded with u-
shaped staples
instead of nails for
Rotary hammer.
fastening.
Stapler.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
3. Equipment Types of surveying
Staking-Out the Building equipment:
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring Conveyor is an equipment which
Construction Tools &
moves materials other than fluids. a. Transit is an
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building equipment used by
Foundation Bed surveyors to
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics measure horizontal
Excavation & Earthworking and vertical angles to
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
obtain land elevation. Transit.
Retaining Structures
Pavements
b. Surveyor’s level
is that which is used
to determine an
unidentified elevation
from a known one.
Surveyors level.

Conveyors are used for transporting c. Construction

materials unto large roofs. laser flashes a
narrow, accurate
beam of light to make
a baseline for
additional
measurements and is
used as a level or as
an alignment tool. Construction
laser.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Types of pumps are:
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment 1.4
a. Water pump is used to pump
Major Parts of a Building water out of holes in the ground
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
so that construction work can
Soil mechanics commence.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

Concrete pump.

b. Concrete pump is used to move

concrete from the concrete mixer to
the concrete form.

Water pump.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0 Concrete Mixer (Cement Mixer)
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards A machine that mixes concrete
Formwork & Shoring ingredients by means of a rotating
Construction Tools &
Equipment 1.4 drum. Raw materials are introduced
Major Parts of a Building into the mixing drum through its open
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
end and discharged by tilting the
Soil mechanics mixing drum to allow the concrete to
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage pour out.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

Types of welding
machines are the b. Laser-powered welder is
following: used to weld material by
employing a laser to heat the
a. Arc welding metal.
machine is used
to weld materials
by melting portions
of the metal.

Weld made by a laser-

Arc welding machine. powered welder.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
4. Heavy Equipment a. Crawler crane is a crane mounted
Staking-Out the Building on metal treads so that it can move
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring Bulldozer is a tractor with a pushing over rough terrain.
Construction Tools &
Equipment 1.4 blade which moves earth and clears
Major Parts of a Building land of bushes and trees.
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

Bulldozer.

Cranes are b. Truck crane is mounted on a truck

machines that frame so that it can be driven in the
lift large and site.
heavy
materials. The c. Tower crane or climbing crane is
types of used in the construction of tall building
cranes are: because it has a built-in jack that
raises the crane from floor to floor as
the building is constructed.
640-foot crane.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Excavator is a machine used for
Staking-Out the Building digging or scooping earth from a
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring place and depositing it in another.
Construction Tools &
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building Types of excavators are:
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics a. Backhoe is used for general
Backhoe.
Excavation & Earthworking digging which is usually mounted
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
on either a crawler or truck frame.
Retaining Structures
Pavements

b. Trencher is a special kind which

digs trenches or long, narrow
ditches for pipelines or cables.

c. Front-end loader is a large Trencher-excavator.

shoveling machine that can scoop
or deposit a large amount of
material.

Front-end loader.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
Highway construction equipment
Staking-Out the Building are:
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & a. Scraper is a machine that loads,
Equipment 1.4
Major Parts of a Building hauls and dumps soil over medium
Foundation Bed to long distances.
Site Investigation Scraper.
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking b. Grader is an earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
machine that grades or levels the
Retaining Structures ground.
Pavements

c. Compactor or roller is a
machine that compacts soil to
prepare for road paving. Grader.

d. Paver is a machine that places,

spreads and finishes concrete or
asphalt paving material.

Compactor
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

1.5 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
The major parts of a building are:
Equipment 1. Superstructure – the portion of the
Major Parts of a Building 1.5
Foundation Bed building above the ground.
Site Investigation SUPERSTRUCTURE
Soil mechanics
2. Substructure – the habitable
Excavation & Earthworking portion of the building found below
Site Drainage the ground.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures 3. Foundation – the structural portion
Pavements
of the building that transfer the STRUCTURE

buildings load into the soil. FOUNDATION

The three types of substructures are:

1. Slab on Fill – slab which rests on

ground and not suspended.
2. Crawl Space – in a building without
BASEMENT
a basement, an unfinished
accessible space below the first CRAWL SPACE
floor which is usually less than a full
story height. SLAB ON FILL

3. Basement – the lower story of a

building, either partly or entirely
below grade.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.6 FOUNDATION BED
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment The word “foundation” is applied to:
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1. Construction below grade, such as footing
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and courses, basement walls, etc., forming the
Retaining Structures lower section of a structure;
Pavements

2. The natural material, the particular part of the

earth’s surface on which the construction rests;

3. Special construction such as piling or piers

used to transmit the loads of the building to firm
substrata.
 Preparation for
Construction

Staking-Out the Building Foundation bed - the natural material

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring on which the construction rests
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Foundation walls - that part of the CONCRETE

Foundation Bed 1.6 building foundation which forms the FOUNDATION WALLS
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
permanent retaining wall of the
Excavation & Earthworking structure below grade.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and CONCRETE MASONRY
Retaining Structures Foundation piers/columns – FOUNDATION WALLS
Pavements piers/columns below grade, to
distinguish them from similar
construction above grade

Grade Beam - that part of a

foundation system which supports the
exterior wall of the superstructure and
bears directly on the column footing.

Footing courses - lower portions of

walls, piers or columns which are
spread to provide a safe base FOOTING

FOUNDATION WALL
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1.6.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION BEDS
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Foundation beds may be classified as follows:
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation 1. Rock (solid rock, bedrock or ledge). Undisturbed rock masses forming an
Soil mechanics undisturbed part of the original rock-formation. Some examples of harder rocks
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage are granite, slate, sandstone, and limestone which are all capable of carrying
Slope Protection and the load of any ordinary structure. Examples of softer rocks are shale, shaley
Retaining Structures slates and certain marley limestone and clay stones.
Pavements

2. Decayed rock (rotten rock). Sand, clays and other materials resulting from
the disintegration of rock masses, lacking the coherent qualities but occupying
the space formerly occupied by the original rock.

3. Loose rock. Rock masses detached from the ledge of which they originally
formed a part.

4. Gravel. Detached rock particles, generally water-worn, rounded and

intermediate in size between sand particles and boulders.

5. Boulders. Detached rock masses larger than gravel, generally rounded and
worn as a result of having been transported by water a considerable distance
from the ledges of which they originally formed a part.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
6. Sand. Non-coherent rock particles smaller than ¼” in maximum dimension.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building 7. Clay. A plastic material resulting from the decomposition and hydration of feldspathic
Foundation Bed 1.6 rocks, being hydrated silicate of alumina, generally mixed with powdered feldspar, quartz
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics and other materials.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 8. Hard-pan. Any strong coherent mixture of clay or other cementing material with sand,
Slope Protection and
gravel and boulders.
Retaining Structures
Pavements
9. Silt. A finely divided earthy material deposited from running water.

10. Mud. Finely divided earthy material generally containing vegetable matter and
deposited from still or slowly moving water.

11. Mould. Earthy material containing a large proportion of humus or vegetable matter.

12. Loam. Earthy material containing a proportion of vegetable matter.

13. Peat. Compressed and partially carbonized vegetable matter.

14. Filled Ground. All artificial fills and some natural fills are liable to a more or less
uniform but continuous settlement or shrinkage due to the gradual consolidation of the
material of which the fill is composed
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
1.6.2 ALLOWABLE LOADS ON FOUNDATION BEDS
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building Thorough investigation is required before one
Foundation Bed 1.6
Site Investigation can determine the allowable unit load on the foundation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
bed. When material and conditions are uniform over
Site Drainage the entire site of the building, a uniform unit load may
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures be used. In cases when entirely different conditions
Pavements
exist under different portions of the same building, the
unit load on the foundation bed must be reduced as
much as possible so as to reduce the differences in
settlements between the two sections of the building to
a minimum.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

1.7 SITE INVESTIGATION
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & Before any design is made, the architect is required to get as much
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
valuable data about site excavation and building erection at the project
Foundation Bed site in order to determine the character of the materials which will be
Site Investigation 1.7
Soil mechanics encountered at the level of a foundation bed.
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.7.1 METHODS OF
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures EXPLORATION
Pavements
1. Test pits. For shallow work, an
open pit is the most suitable method
since it calls for an actual inspection of
the undisturbed material over a
considerable area.

2. Test borings. For excavations that

are carried no deeper than the
proposed level, the underlying material
may be investigated by test boring. Soil Boring Rig. SPT Sample.

1.7.2 LOADING TESTS

Loading tests of the materials forming
the foundation bed are made to assist
in determining its safe bearing
capacity.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1.8 SOIL MECHANICS
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
1.8.1 CLASSES OF SOIL
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building There are two broad classes of soil:
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics 1.8
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage A. Course-grained soil – consist
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures of relatively large particles,
Pavements visible to the naked eyes.

B. Fine-grained soil –
consist of much smaller
particles, such as silt and clay.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION PRESUMPTIVE PERMEABILITY
BEARING AND
Equipment CAPACITY DRAINAGE
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed psf kPa
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics 1.8
Excavation & Earthworking Gravels Clean Gravels GW Well-graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent
Site Drainage 6.4 – 76.2mm
Slope Protection and GP Poorly graded gravel 10000 479 Excellent
Retaining Structures Gravels with GM Silty Gravel 5000 239 Poor
Pavements fines
GC Clayey Gravel 4000 192 Poor

Sands Clean SW Well-graded sand 7500 359 Excellent

0.05 – 6.4mm Sands
SP Poorly graded sand 6000 287 Excellent

Sands with SM Silty Sand 4000 192 Fair

fines
SC Clayey Sand 4000 192 Poor

Silts LL>50§ ML Inorganic Silt 2000 96 Poor

0.002-0.05mm
CL Inorganic Clay 2000 96 Impervious

Clays LL<50§ OL Organic Very poor Impervious

<0.002mm Silt-Clay

MH Elastic inorganic silt 2000 96 Poor

CH Plastic inorganic clay 2000 96 Impervious

OH Organic clay & silt Very poor Impervious

Pt Peat unsuitable Poor

 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
1.8.3 STABILITY AND STRENGTH OF SOIL BED
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards is defined by the following criteria:
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment A. Allowable Bearing Capacity – maximum unit pressure a
Major Parts of a Building foundation is permitted to impose vertically or laterally on the soil
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation mass.
Soil mechanics 1.8
Excavation & Earthworking
B. Density – the critical factoring determining the bearing capacity of
Site Drainage granular soils.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
SPT - Standard Penetration Test
Pavements - measures the density of granular soils and the consistency of
some clays
- records the number of blows required by a hammer to advance a
standard soil sampler.
MDD - Maximum Dry Density
- Dry density is the density of soil, or the like, after it has been
heated at a temperature of 221 deg F (105 deg C) to a dry
condition.
C. Shearing Strength – measure of the ability to resist displacement
when an external force is applied, due largely to the combined effects
of cohesion and internal friction.
D. Water Table – level beneath which the soil is saturated with
groundwater.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

1.9 EXCAVATION AND EARTHWORKING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring These processes entail the following:
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building 1. Excavating is the process of digging
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
the earth to provide a place for the
Soil mechanics foundation of the building.
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and 2. Leveling and Grading are processes
Retaining Structures that change land elevation and slope by
Pavements
filling in low spots and shaving off high
spots.

3. Stabilizing the Soil is the process of

compacting the soil on which the
structure will rest.

4. The protection of adjoining

structure is a law that provides that any
person making an excavation is
responsible for resulting damage to
adjoining property.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & 5. Shoring is a process of
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
transferring a portion of the
Foundation Bed load of the wall to temporary
Site Investigation footings and done when the
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 excavation does not go much
Site Drainage below the adjoining footings
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures and when the material is fairly
Pavements solid.

It consists of the following members:

a) sheet piles, which are timber, steel, or pre-cast planks driven side by side to retain earth and
prevent water from seeping into the exaction and
b) wales or continuous horizontal beams which tie the sheet piles in place or
c) soldier piles, which are steel H-sections driven vertically into the ground to support
d) lagging or heavy timber planks joined together horizontally to retain the face of an
excavation.
e) crossbracing or rakers are diagonals which support the wales and soldier piles bearing on
heel blocks or footings.
f) tiebacks secured to rock or soil anchors are resorted to when crossbracing or rakers would
interfere with the excavation procedure.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring SHEET PILING SOLDIER PILES/BEAMS
Construction Tools &
Equipment (STEEL H-SECTIONS)
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
LAGGING refers to the heavy
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics timber planks joined together
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 side by side to retain the face of
Site Drainage an excavation
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
STEEL
Pavements
TIMBER
PRECAST

SHEET PILING AND SOLDIER

TIEBACKS BEAMS WITH LAGGING
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building 6. Needling and underpinning

Laying the Batterboards is a process where needles or
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & girders are used in cases where
Equipment part or all of the weight of the wall
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed has to be carried, as when the old
Site Investigation footing is removed and the wall
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9
underpinned or carried down to a
Site Drainage new footing at a greater depth.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

NEEDLING NEEDLE; a short beam passed

through a wall as a temporary
support while the foundation or
part beneath is repaired, altered
or strengthened

DEAD SHORE; an upright timber

for supporting a dead load during
the structural alteration of a
building, esp. one of two supports
for a needle
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
7. Dewatering refers to the process of lowering a water table
Major Parts of a Building or preventing an excavation from filling with groundwater. It is
Foundation Bed accomplished by driving perforated tubes called wellpoints
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics into the ground to collect water from the surrounding area so
Excavation & Earthworking 1.9 it can be pumped away.
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
DEWATERING
EXISTING
WATER TABLE

WATER TABLE
AFTER PUMPING
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building 1.10 SITE DRAINAGE

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & - necessary to prevent erosion and collection of excess surface
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
water or groundwater resulting from new construction.
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation Surface Water –
Soil mechanics Groundwater –
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.10 1. Rainfall which runs over the surface of the Water, near the surface of the
Slope Protection and ground. ground , which passes through the
Retaining Structures 2. Water carried by an aggregate except that held
Pavements subsoil.
by absorption within the aggregate particles
themselves.

BASIC TYPES OF SITE DRAINAGE

A. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE –
consists of an underground network of piping for conveying groundwater
to a point of disposal, as a storm sewer system or a natural outfall at a
lower elevation on the site. Excess groundwater can reduce the load-
carrying capacity of a foundation soil and increase the hydrostatic
pressure on a building foundation. Waterproofing is required for basement
structures situated close to or below the water table of a site.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0 Components of the sub-surface drainage system are:
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards Catch Basins
Formwork & Shoring receptacles for the runoff of SWALES
Construction Tools &
Equipment
surface water. They have a basin
Major Parts of a Building or sump that retains heavy
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
sediment before it can pass into
Soil mechanics an underground drainpipe. AREA DRAIN
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage 1.10
Slope Protection and Culverts
Retaining Structures are drains or channels passing under
Pavements
a road or walkway.
CATCH BASINS

Foundation drainage tile or pipe

Tile or piping for the collection of sub- CULVERTS
surface water, dispersion of septic
tank effluent, and the like.

Drainage tile
is a hollow tile, usually laid end to end
as piping (with open joints) in soil in
order to drain water saturated soil, or
CATCHMENTS
used to permit fluid in the hollow-tile
pipe to disperse into the ground (as in
an absorption field).
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards B.SURFACE DRAINAGE
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & refers to the grading and surfacing of a site in order to divert rain and
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
other surface water into natural drainage patterns or a municipal
Foundation Bed storm sewer system. Grass and lawn areas are sloped 1.5% to 10%;
Site Investigation while paved parking areas, 2% to 3%. A holding pond may be
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking necessary when the amount of surface runoff exceeds the capacity
Site Drainage 1.10 of the storm sewer system.
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements
Components of the surface drainage system are:

Swales
shallow depressions formed by the
intersection of two ground slopes,
designed to direct or divert the runoff
of surface water. Grass swales slope
1.5% to 2%; while paved swales, 4%
to 6%.
SWALES
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards Area Drain
Formwork & Shoring receptacle designed to collect Absorption Field or Disposal
Construction Tools &
Equipment surface water or rainwater from an
Field
Major Parts of a Building open area.
Foundation Bed a system of trenches containing
Site Investigation coarse aggregate and
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking distribution pipes through which
Site Drainage 1.10 Dry Wells septic-tank effluent may seep
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures are drainage pits lined into the surrounding soil.
Pavements with gravel or rubble to
receive surface water Absorption Trench
and allow it to percolate a trench containing coarse
away to absorbent aggregate and a distribution tile
earth underground. pipe through which septic-tank
Also called an effluent may flow, covered with
absorbing well. earth.
DRY WELL

Ponds and Marshes

designed catchments areas for
surface water.
ABSORPTION TRENCH
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

1.11 SLOPE PROTECTION AND RETAINING
Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring
STRUCTURES
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
1. The need for stabilizing a sloping
Site Investigation ground can be reduced by
Soil mechanics diverting the runoff at the top of
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage the slope or by creating a series
Slope Protection and of terraces to reduce the velocity
Retaining Structures 1.11
Pavements of the runoff.

2. Natural means of stabilization

include soil binders --- plant
materials that inhibit or prevent
erosion by providing a ground
cover and forming a dense
network of roots that bind the soil.
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
3. Riprap is a layer of irregularly broken
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards and random-sized stones placed on the
Formwork & Shoring slope of an embankment. RIPRAP
Construction Tools &
Equipment Depth of layer should be
Major Parts of a Building greater than the maximum size
Foundation Bed of stone
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics FILTER FABRIC or GRADED
Excavation & Earthworking SAND and GRAVEL for drainage
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures 1.11
Pavements

4. Cribbing is a cellular framework of squared steel,

concrete, or timber members, assembled in layers at
right angles, and filled with earth or stones.

5. A Bin Wall is a type of gravity retaining wall

formed by stacking modular, interlocking pre-
cast concrete units and filling the voids with
crushed stone or gravel.
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building 6. Gabions are galvanized or PVC coated wire

Laying the Batterboards baskets filled with stones and stacked to form
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & an abutment or retaining structure.
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building GABIONS
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics Filter fabric or graded
Excavation & Earthworking sand and gravel for
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and drainage
Retaining Structures 1.11
Pavements

7. Retaining Structures. When a desired change in

ground elevation exceeds the angle of repose of the
soil, a retaining wall becomes necessary to hold the
mass of earth on the uphill side of the grade change.
The types of RC retaining walls are as follows:
10” (255)

a) Gravity Retaining Wall - resists

overturning and sliding by the
sheer weight and volume of its
mass.

0.5 H
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0
b) T-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – limited to a height of
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards 20’ (6 M); beyond this height a counterfort wall is employed.
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
8” (205)
Equipment Batter refers to backward
Major Parts of a Building sloping face of a wall as it
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
rises to offset illusion of face
Soil mechanics leaning forward
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage Temperature steel for walls
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures 1.11 more than 10” (255) thick
Pavements
Drainage mat w/ filter fabric
0.6H or porous gravel backfill
(0.9H w/ surcharge)
2” (51 mm) o weepholes @
4’-6’ (1220-1830mm) o.c. or
perforated drainpipe sloped
to outlet away from wall
2” (51) min
3” (75) min
Structural Steel
reinforcement

Footing should extend

below the frostline or
2’ (610mm) below the
grade level,
whichever is higher
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building c) Counterfort Retaining Wall– utilizes

Laying the Batterboards triangular-shaped cross walls to stiffen the
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools & vertical slab and add weight to the base. The
Equipment counterforts are spaced at equal intervals
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed equal to one-half the wall height.
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures 1.11
Pavements

d) L-type Cantilevered Retaining Wall – used

when the wall abuts a property line or other
obstruction.

0.7H
(1.25 w/ surcharge)
0.6H
(1.0 w/ surcharge)
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.12 PAVEMENTS
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment Paving provides a wearing surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the
Major Parts of a Building landscape. It is a composite structure whose thickness and construction
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation are directly related to:
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage • type and intensity of traffic and loads to be carried
Slope Protection and • bearing capacity and permeability of the subgrade
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12

1.12.1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

1. Flexible Pavements – consists of

unit pavers of concrete, brick, or
stone laid on a sand setting bed,
are somewhat resilient and
distribute loads to the subgrade in a
radiating manner. Requires wood,
steel, stone, masonry, or concrete
edging to restrain horizontal
movement.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
 Preparation for
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Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 2. Rigid Pavements – are
Formwork & Shoring reinforced concrete slabs or
Construction Tools &
Equipment paving units mortared over a
Major Parts of a Building concrete slab, distribute the
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
loads internally and transfer
Soil mechanics them to subgrade over a broad
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
area. Requires reinforcement
Slope Protection and and an extension of the base
Retaining Structures material along their edges.
Pavements 1.12 RIGID PAVEMENTS

1.12.2 TYPES OF PAVERS

 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards
Formwork & Shoring 1.12.3 PAVING PATTERNS
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12
 Preparation for
Construction 1.0

Staking-Out the Building

Laying the Batterboards 1.12.4 PAVING DETAILS
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Soil mechanics
Excavation & Earthworking
Site Drainage
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements 1.12
 Preparation for
Construction

BUILDING
Staking-Out the Building
Laying the Batterboards
CONSTRUCTION
Formwork & Shoring
Construction Tools &
1 Equipment
Major Parts of a Building
Foundation Bed
Site Investigation
Excavation & Earthworking
Slope Protection and
Retaining Structures
Pavements

END