Discrete Mathematics Logic of Quantified Statements: Alexander Bukharovich New York University

Discrete Mathematics
Lecture 2
Logic of Quantified Statements
Alexander Bukharovich
New York University
Predicates
• A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables
• The domain of a predicate variable is a set
of all values that may be substituted in place
of the variable
• P(x): x is a student at NYU
Predicates
• If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth
set of P(x) is the set of all elements in D that make
P(x) true when substituted for x. The truth set is
denoted as:
{x ∈ D | P(x)}
• Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates with the common
domain D. P(x) ⇒ Q(x) means that every element
in the truth set of P(x) is in the truth set of Q(x).
P(x) ⇔ Q(x) means that P(x) and Q(x) have
identical truth sets
Universal Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. A universal
statement is a statement in the form “∀x ∈ D,
P(x)”. It is true iff P(x) is true for every x from D.
It is false iff P(x) is false for at least one x from D.
A value of x form which P(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement
• Examples
– D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}: ∀x ∈ D, x² >= x
∀x ∈ R, x² >= x
• Method of exhaustion
Existential Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. An
existential statement is a statement in the
form “∃ x ∈ D, P(x)”. It is true iff P(x) is
true for at least one x from D. It is false iff
P(x) is false for every x from D.
• Examples:
∃ m ∈ Z, m² = m
– E = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, ∃ x ∈ E, m² = m
Universal Conditional Statement
• Universal conditional statement “∀x, if P(x)
then Q(x)”:
∀x R, if x > 2, then x2 > 4
• Empty domains: all pink elephants speak
Latin
• Universal conditional statement is called
vacuously true or true by default iff P(x) is
false for every x in D
Negation of Quantified
Statements
• The negation of a universally quantified
statement ∀x ∈ D, P(x) is ∃ x ∈ D, ~P(x)
• The negation of an existentially quantified
statement ∃ x ∈ D, P(x) is ∀x ∈ D, ~P(x)
• The negation of a universal conditional
statement ∀x ∈ D, P(x)  Q(x) is ∃ x ∈ D,
P(x) ∧~Q(x)
Exercises
• Write negations for each of the following statements:
– All dinosaurs are extinct
– No irrational numbers are integers
– Some exercises have answers
– All COBOL programs have at least 20 lines
– The sum of any two even integers is even
– The square of any even integer is even
• Let P(x) be some predicate defined for all real numbers x, let:
r = ∀x ∈ Z, P(x); s = ∀x ∈ Q, P(x); t = ∀x ∈ R, P(x)
– Find P(x) (but not x ∈ Z) so that r is true, but s and t are false
– Find P(x) so that both r and s are true, but t is false
Multiply Quantified Statements
• For all positive numbers x, there exists number y
such that y < x
• There exists number x such that for all positive
numbers y, y < x
• For all people x there exists person y such that x
loves y
• There exists person x such that for all people y, x
loves y
• Definition of mathematical limit
Negation of Multiply Quantified
Statements
• The negation of ∀x, ∃ y, P(x, y)
is logically equivalent to ∃ x, ∀y, ~P(x, y)
• The negation of ∃ x, ∀y, P(x, y)
is logically equivalent to ∀x, ∃ y, ~P(x, y)
Necessary and Sufficient
Conditions, Only If
∀ ∀x, r(x) is a sufficient condition for s(x)
means: ∀x, if r(x) then s(x)
∀ ∀x, r(x) is a necessary condition for s(x)
means: ∀x, if s(x) then r(x)
∀ ∀x, r(x) only if s(x) means: ∀x, if r(x) then
s(x)
Prolog Programming Language
• Can use parts of logic as programming lang.
• Simple statements:
isabove(g, b), color(g, gray)
• Quantified statements:
if isabove(X, Y) and isabove(Y, Z) then
isabove(X, Z)
• Questions:
?color(b, blue), ?isabove(X, w)
Exercises
• Rewrite ∃ !x ∈ D, P(x) without using the
symbol ∃ !
• Determine whether a pair of quantified
statements have the same truth values
∀x ∈ D, (P(x) ∧Q(x)) vs (∀x ∈ D, P(x)) ∧(∀x ∈ D, Q(x))
∃ x ∈ D, (P(x) ∧Q(x)) vs (∃ x ∈ D, P(x)) ∧(∃ x ∈ D, Q(x))
∀x ∈ D, (P(x) ∨Q(x)) vs (∀x ∈ D, P(x)) ∨(∀x ∈ D, Q(x))
∃ x ∈ D, (P(x) ∨Q(x)) vs (∃ x ∈ D, P(x)) ∨(∃ x ∈ D, Q(x))
Arguments with Quantified
Statements
• Rule of universal instantiation: if some property is
true of everything in the domain, then this property
is true for any subset in the domain
• Universal Modus Ponens:
– Premises: (∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)); P(a) for some a
– Conclusion: Q(a)
• Universal Modus Tollens:
– Premises: (∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)); ~Q(a) for some a
– Conclusion: ~P(a)
• Converse and inverse errors
Validity of Arguments using
Diagrams
• Premises: All human beings are mortal; Zeus is
not mortal. Conclusion: Zeus is not a human being
• Premises: All human beings are mortal; Felix is
mortal. Conclusion: Felix is a human being
• Premises: No polynomial functions have
horizontal asymptotes; This function has a
horizontal asymptote. Conclusion: This function is
not a polynomial
Exercises
• Derive the rule of universal modus tollens
from the rule of universal modus ponens.

Discrete Mathematics Logic of Quantified Statements: Alexander Bukharovich New York University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Discrete Mathematics Logic of Quantified Statements: Alexander Bukharovich New York University

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Discrete Mathematics Logic of Quantified Statements: Alexander Bukharovich New York University

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Discrete Mathematics

You might also like