Institution of Technology School of Computing Department of Information Technology and Computer Science

Institution of Technology
School of Computing
Department of Information Technology and computer
science
Introduction to Distributed System
COSc419
1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Distributed Systems

May 13, 2021
Dawit A & Mehari D

Introduction Introduction
Introduction
Before the mid-80s, computers were

very expensive (hundred of thousands or even millions of dollars)
very slow (a few thousand instructions per second)
not connected among themselves
After the mid-80s: two major developments
Cheap and powerful microprocessor-based computers appeared
Computer networks
LANs at speeds ranging from 10 to 1000 Mbps
WANs at speed ranging from 64 Kbps to gigabits/sec
Consequence
feasibility of using a large network of computers to work for the same
application; this is in contrast to the old centralized systems where
there was a single computer with its peripherals
2/
Introduction Definition
Distributed System: Definition

A distributed system is
a collection of autonomous computing elements that appears to
its users as a single coherent system
Two aspects: (1) independent computing elements

and
(2) single system ⇒ middleware.
Same interface
Computer 1 everywhere
Computer 2 Computer 3 Computer 4
Appl. A Appli cati n B Appl. C

o
Distributed-system layer (middleware)
Local OS 1 Local OS 2 Local OS 3 Local OS 4
Network
3/
Introduction Definition
Distributed System: Definition
Other Definitions
A distributed system is a system designed to support the development of
applications and services which can exploit a physical architecture
consisting of multiple, autonomous processing elements that do not
share primary memory but cooperate by sending asynchronous
messages over a communication (Blair & Stefani)
network
4/
Introduction Why Distributed
Why Distributed?
Resource and Data Sharing

Printers databases, multimedia servers, ...
Availability, Reliability
The loss of some instances can be hidden
Scalability, Extensibility
The system grows with demand (e.g., extra
servers)
Performance
Huge power (CPU, memory, ...) available
Inherent distribution, communication
Organizational distribution, e-mail, video
5/
Introduction Characteristics of DS
Characteristics of Distributed Systems
Differences between the computers and the ways they communicate

are
hidden from users
Users and applications can interact with a distributed system in
a
consistent and uniform way regardless of location
Distributed systems should be easy to expand and
scale
A distributed system is normally continuously available, even if
there
may be partial failures
6/
Introduction Goals of Distributed System
Goals of Distributed Systems
To support heterogeneous computers and networks and to provide a

single-system view,
A distributed system is often organized by means of a layer of software
called middleware that extends over multiple machines.
A distributed system should
easily connect users with resources (printers, computers,
storage facilities, data, files, Web pages, ...)
reasons: economics, to collaborate and exchange information
be transparent: hide the fact that the resources and processes
are distributed across multiple computers
be open
be Scalable
7/
Distribution transparency
A distributed system that is able to present itself to users and applications as
if
it wereTransp.
only a singleDescription
computer system is said to be transparent
Access Hide differences in data representation and how an
object is accessed
Location Hide where an object is located
Relocation Hide that an object may be moved to another location
while in use
Migration Hide that an object may move to another location
Replication Hide that an object is replicated
Concurrency Hide that an object may be shared by several
independent users
Failure Hide the failure and recovery of an object
Note
Distribution transparency is a nice a goal, but achieving it is a different
story.
8/
Distribution transparency
A distributed system that is able to present itself to users and applications as
if
it wereTransp.
only a singleDescription
computer system is said to be transparent
Access Hide differences in data representation and how an
object is accessed
Location Hide where an object is located
Relocation Hide that an object may be moved to another location
while in use
Migration Hide that an object may move to another location
Replication Hide that an object is replicated
Concurrency Hide that an object may be shared by several
independent users
Failure Hide the failure and recovery of an object
Note
Distribution transparency is a nice a goal, but achieving it is a different
story.
8/
Degree of transparency
Observation
Aiming at full distribution transparency may be too
much:
Users may be located in different continents
Completely hiding failures of networks and nodes is (theoretically and
practically) impossible
You cannot distinguish a slow computer from a failing one
You can never be sure that a server actually performed an operation before a
crash
Full transparency will cost performance, exposing distribution of the system
Keeping Web caches exactly up-to-date with the master
Immediately flushing write operations to disk for fault
tolerance
9/
Observation
much:
crash
tolerance
9/
Observation
much:
crash
tolerance
9/
Observation
much:
crash
tolerance
9/
Openness of distributed systems
Open distributed system

Be able to interact with services from other open systems, irrespective of
the underlying environment:
Systems should conform to well-defined interfaces
Systems should support portability of applications
components work on different platforms
Systems should easily interoperate
components of different origin can communicate
another goal of an open distributed system is that it should be flexible
and extensible; easy to configure the system out of different
components;
easy to add new components, replace existing ones
10 /
Openness of distributed systems —– Continued
An Open Distributed System is a system that offers services according

to
standard rules that describe the syntax and semantics of those services;
e.g., protocols in networks
Standards - a necessity
should allow competition in non-normative areas
In distributed systems, such services are often specified through
interfaces often described using an Interface Definition Language
(IDL)
specify only syntax: the names of the functions, types of parameters,
return values, possible exceptions, ...
11 / 42
Scale in distributed systems

Observation
Many developers of modern distributed system easily use the adjective
“scalable”
without making clear why their system actually scales.
Scalability
a distributed system should be scalable:
Size: adding more users and resources to the system
Geographically: users and resources may be far apart
Administratively: should be easy to manage even if it spans
many
administrative organizations
Observation
Most systems account only, to a certain extent, for size scalability. The
(non)solution: powerful servers. Today, the challenge lies in geographical and
administrative scalability.
12 /

Observation
“scalable”
Scalability
many
Observation
12 /

Observation
“scalable”
Scalability
many
Observation
12 /
Scalability problems: performance problems caused by limited capacity

of
servers and networks
Concept Example
Centralized services Single server for all users-mostly for security reasons
Centralized data A single on-line telephone book
Centralized algorithms Doing routing based on complete information
Scaling Techniques
How to solve scaling problems
The problem is mainly performance, and arises as a result of limitations
in the capacity of servers and networks (for geographical scalability)
Three possible solutions: hiding communication latencies, distribution,
and replication
13 /
Techniques for scaling
Hide communication latencies

Try to avoid waiting for responses to remote service requests
Let the requester do other useful job
i.e., construct requesting applications that use only asynchronous
communication instead of synchronous communication; when a
reply arrives the application is interrupted
Good for batch processing and parallel applications but not
for interactive applications
For interactive applications, move part of the job to the client
to reduce communication; e.g. filling a form and checking the
entries
14 /
a server checking the correctness of field

b entries
a client doing the job
e.g., shipping code is now supported in Web applications using Java Applets
15 / 42
Distribution
Partition data and computations across multiple
machines:
Move computations to clients (Java applets)
Decentralized naming services (DNS)
Decentralized information systems (WWW)
16 /
Replication/caching
Replicate components across a distributed system to increase
availability and for load balancing, leading to better performance
Replicated file servers and databases
Mirrored Web sites
decided by the owner of a resource
caching (a special form of replication) also reduces
communication latency; decided by the user
but, caching and replication may lead to consistency problems (see
Chapter 6 - Consistency and Replication)
Web caches (in browsers and
proxies) File caching (at server and
client)
17 /
Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls
Observation
Many distributed systems are needlessly complex caused by mistakes
that required patching later on. There are many false assumptions:
The network is reliable
The network is secure
The network is homogeneous
The topology does not change
Latency is zero
Bandwidth is infinite
Transport cost is zero
There is one administrator
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Observation
Latency is zero
18 /
Introduction Types of distributed systems
Types of distributed systems
Distributed computing systems

- Focus on computation
- Goal: High performance computing tasks
Distributed information systems
Focus on interoperability (the ability to exchange and use information)
- Goal: Distribute information across several servers
Distributed pervasive systems
Focus on mobile, embedded, communicating systems
- Goal: Spread a real-life environment with a large variety of smart
devices
19 /
Introduction Types of distributed
systems
Distributed Computing systems

Used for high-performance computing tasks two types:
cluster computing and grid computing
Many distributed systems are configured for High-
Performance
Computing
Cluster Computing
Essentially a group of high-end systems connected through a LAN:
A collection of similar workstations or PCs (homogeneous),
closely connected by means of a high-speed LAN
Each node runs the same operating system
Used for parallel programming in which a single compute
intensive program is run in parallel on multiple machines
20 /
systems
Master node Compute node Compute node Compute node
Management Component Component Component

application of of of
parallel parallel parallel
application application application
Parallel libs
Local OS Local OS Local OS Local OS
Remote access Standard network

network
High-speed network
An example of a cluster computing

system
21 /
systems

Grid Computing
Lots of nodes (including clusters across multiple subnets) from
everywhere:
Resource sharing and coordinated problem solving in dynamic,
multi-institutional virtual organizations (I. Foster)
High degree of heterogeneity: no assumptions are made concerning
hardware, operating systems, networks, administrative domains,
security policies, etc.
Key issue in a grid computing system - resources from different
organizations are brought together to allow the collaboration of a
group of people or institutions - forms a virtual organization.
Note
To allow for collaborations, grids generally use virtual organizations. In
essence, this is a grouping of users (or better: their IDs) that will allow
for authorization on resource allocation.
22 /
systems
A layered architecture for grid computing

systems.
23 /
systems

Fabric layer - provides interfaces to local resources at a specific site.
interfaces are designed to allow sharing of resources within a
virtual organization.
provide functions for querying the state and capabilities of a
resource, along with functions for actual resource management (e.g.,
locking resources).
Connectivity layer - consists of communication protocols for
supporting
grid transactions that span the usage of multiple resources.
contains security protocols to authenticate users and resources.
in many cases human users are not authenticated - programs acting
on behalf of the users are authenticated.
Resource layer - responsible for managing a single resource.
uses functions provided by the connectivity layer and calls directly
the interfaces made available by the fabric layer.
responsible for access control, and hence will rely on the
authentication performed as part of the connectivity layer.
Collective layer - handles access to multiple resources
consists
tasks of multiple
onto services resources,
for resource discovery,
data allocation
replication, etc. and scheduling of24 /
systems
Distributed Information Systems
Evolved in organizations that were confronted with a wealth of

networked applications, but for which interoperability turned out to
be problematic.
Many of the existing middleware solutions are the result of working
with an infrastructure in which it was easier to integrate applications
into an enterprise-wide information system
25 /
systems
Several levels at which integration took place:

1 A networked application simply consisted of a server running that
application (often including a database) and making it available

to remote programs, called clients.
Clients could send a request to the server for executing a specific
operation, after which a response would be sent back. Integration
at the lowest level would allow clients to wrap a number of
requests, possibly for different servers, into a single larger request
and have it executed as a distributed transaction.
The key idea was that all, or none of the requests would be executed.
2 As applications became more sophisticated and were gradually
separated into independent components (notably distinguishing
database components from processing components), it became clear
that integration should also take place by letting applications
communicate directly with each other.
26 /
systems
Results: two forms of distributed systems

Transaction processing systems
Enterprise application integration
(EAI)
Transaction processing system
Focus on database applications - operations on a database are
usually carried out in the form of transactions.
Programming using transactions requires special primitives that
must either be supplied by the underlying distributed system or by
the language runtime system.
Example primitives for transactions
27 /
systems
Distributed Information Systems : Transactions
Exact list of primitives depends on what kinds of objects are being

used
in the transaction.
e.g. mail system - may be primitives to send, receive, and forward
mail. e.g. accounting system - may be different.
Ordinary statements, procedure calls, etc, are allowed inside
a transaction.
Remote procedure calls (RPCs) procedure calls to remote servers,
are
often also encapsulated in a transaction, leading to what is known as
a transactional RPC. 28 /
systems
e.g., assume the following banking operation

withdraw an amount x from account 1
deposit the amount x to account 2
What happens if there is a problem
after the first activity is carried out?
Group the two operations into one
transaction; either both are carried out
or neither
We need a way to roll back when a transaction is not completed
29 /
systems
e.g., assume the following banking operation

withdraw an amount x from account 1
deposit the amount x to account 2
What happens if there is a problem
after the first activity is carried out?
Group the two operations into one
transaction; either both are carried out
or neither
We need a way to roll back when a transaction is not completed
29 /
systems
E.g. reserving a seat from White Plains to Malindi through JFK

and Nairobi airports
BEGIN_ TRANSACTION BEGIN_ TRANSACTION

reserve WP --+ JFK; reserve WP --+ JFK;
reserve JFK--+ Nairobi; reserve JFK --+ Nairobi;
reserve Nairobi --+ reserve Nairobi --+ full ::::
Malindi· Malindi )
END_ TRANSACTION ABORT_ TRANSACTION
(a) (b)
(a) transaction to reserve three flights commits
(b) transaction aborts when thirdflight is unavailable
30 /
systems
Distributed information systems: Transactions
Model
A transaction is a collection of operations on the state of an object (database,
object composition, etc.) that satisfies the following properties (ACID)
Atomicity: All operations either succeed, or all of them fail. When the transaction
fails, the state of the object will remain unaffected by the transaction.
Consistency: A transaction establishes a valid state transition. This does not
exclude
the possibility of invalid, intermediate states during the transaction’s execution.
Isolation: Concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other. It appears to
each transaction T that other transactions occur either before T , or after T , but
never both.
Durability: After the execution of a transaction, its effects are made permanent:
changes to the state survive failures.
31 /
systems
Model
exclude
never both.
31 /
systems
Model
exclude
never both.
31 /
systems
Model
exclude
never both.
31 /
systems
Model
exclude
never both.
31 /
systems
Classification of Transactions
A transaction could be flat, nested or
distributed
Flat Transaction
Consists of a series of operations that satisfy the ACID properties
Simple and widely used but with some limitations
Do not allow partial results to be committed or
aborted
i.e., atomicity is also partly a weakness
In our airline reservation example, we may want to
accept the first two reservations and find an
alternative one for the last
Some transactions may take too much time
32 /
systems
Nested Transaction
Constructed from a number of sub transactions; it is
logically decomposed into a hierarchy of sub transactions
The top-level transaction forks off children that run in
parallel, on different machines; to gain performance or for
programming simplicity
Each may also execute one or more sub transactions
Permanence (durability) applies only to the top-level transaction;
commits by children should be undone
33 /
systems
Distributed Transaction
A flat transaction that operates on data that are distributed
across multiple machines
Problem: separate algorithms are needed to handle the locking
of data and committing the entire transaction; see later in
Chapter 8 for distributed commit
34 /
systems
Nested transaction Distributed transaction
Subtransaction Subtransaction Subtransaction Subtransaction
LJ f D
Airline database otel database
Distributed dat abase
T-M> different (independent) T'M> physically separated
databases parts of the same
database
(a) (b)
(a) a nested transaction

(b) distributed
transaction
35 /
systems
Distr. info. systems: Enterprise application integration
The more applications became decoupled from the databases they

were
built upon, the more evident it became that facilities were needed
to integrate applications independent from their databases.
Application components should be able to communicate directly
with each other and not merely by means of the request/reply
behavior that was supported by transaction processing systems.
36 /
systems
Distr. info. systems: Enterprise application integration
Result:
Middleware as a communication facilitator in enterprise
application integration.
Client Client
application application
Communication middleware
Server-side Server-side Server-side

application application application
There are different communication model:

Remote Procedure Call (RPC) Remote
Method Invocation (RMI) Message-
Oriented Middleware (MOM)
37 /
systems
Observation
Emerging next-generation of distributed systems in which nodes are small,
mobile, and often embedded in a larger system, characterized by the fact
that the system naturally blends into the user’s environment.
Three (overlapping) subtypes

Ubiquitous computing systems: pervasive and continuously present,
i.e., there is a continous interaction between system and user.
Mobile computing systems: pervasive, but emphasis is on the fact
that devices are inherently mobile.
Sensor (and actuator) networks: pervasive, with emphasis on the actual
(collaborative) sensing and actuation of the environment.
38 /
systems
Observation

38 /
systems
Observation

38 /
systems
Observation

38 /
systems
Ubiquitous computing systems
Basic characteristics
(Distribution) Devices are networked, distributed, and accessible in
a transparent manner
(Interaction) Interaction between users and devices is highly
unobtrusive (Context awareness) The system is aware of a user’s
context in order to optimize interaction
(Autonomy) Devices operate autonomously without human
intervention, and are thus highly self-managed
(Intelligence) The system as a whole can handle a wide range of
dynamic actions and interactions
39 /
systems
39 /
systems
39 /
systems
39 /
systems
39 /
systems
Mobile computing systems
Observation
Mobile computing systems are generally a subclass of ubiquitous
computing systems and meet all of the five requirements.
Typical characteristics
Many different types of mobile divices: smart phones, remote
controls, car equipment, and so on
Wireless communication
Devices may continuously change their location ⇒
setting up a route may be problematic, as routes can change
frequently devices may easily be temporarily disconnected ⇒
disruption-tolerant networks
40 /
Introduction Types of distributed systems
Sensor networks
Characteristics
The nodes to which sensors are attached
are:
Many (10s-1000s)
Simple (small memory/compute/communication
capacity)
Often battery-powered (or even battery-less)
41 /
systems
Sensor networks as distributed systems
Sensor network
Operator's site
Sensor data is
sent directly to
operator
(a)
Each sensor can

process and Sensor network
store data
Operator's site
Query
Sensors
send only
answers
(b) 42 /
End of chapter one
Question please
Thank you !
Any ?
40 /
End of chapter one
Quiz
1. What is Distributed system ? 1 mark]
2. Briefly describe the difference between
Grid computing and cluster computing ? 1 mark]
3. What is middleware in distributed system? 1 mark]
Bones : what are the properties that transaction must satisfied [ 1

mark]
40 /

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Institution of Technology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Distributed Systems

Dawit A & Mehari D

Before the mid-80s, computers were

Distributed System: Definition

Two aspects: (1) independent computing elements

Appl. A Appli cati n B Appl. C

Distributed-system layer (middleware)

Local OS 1 Local OS 2 Local OS 3 Local OS 4

Distributed System: Definition

Resource and Data Sharing

Characteristics of Distributed Systems

Differences between the computers and the ways they communicate

Goals of Distributed Systems

To support heterogeneous computers and networks and to provide a

Openness of distributed systems

Open distributed system

Openness of distributed systems —– Continued

An Open Distributed System is a system that offers services according

Scale in distributed systems

Scale in distributed systems

Scale in distributed systems

Scale in distributed systems

Scalability problems: performance problems caused by limited capacity

Techniques for scaling

Hide communication latencies

Techniques for scaling

a server checking the correctness of field

Techniques for scaling

Techniques for scaling

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Developing distributed systems: Pitfalls

Types of distributed systems

Distributed computing systems

Distributed computing systems

Distributed Computing systems

Distributed computing systems

Master node Compute node Compute node Compute node

Management Component Component Component

Local OS Local OS Local OS Local OS

Remote access Standard network

An example of a cluster computing

Distributed computing systems

Distributed computing systems

A layered architecture for grid computing

Distributed computing systems

Distributed Information Systems

Evolved in organizations that were confronted with a wealth of

Distributed Information Systems

Several levels at which integration took place:

application (often including a database) and making it available

Distributed Information Systems