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Introduction
One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which statistical
results may be presented is through diagrams and graphs.
Evidence of this can be found in newspapers, magazines,
advertisement etc. Descriptive statistics enable us to understand
data through summary values and graphical presentations.
Summary values not only include the average, but also the
spread, median, mode, range, and standard deviation. It is
important to look at summary statistics along with the data set
to understand the entire picture, as the same summary statistics
may describe very different data sets. Descriptive statistics can
be illustrated in an understandable fashion by presenting them
graphically using statistical and data presentation tools.
Several types of statistical/data presentation tools exist, including:
(a) charts displaying frequencies (bar, pie, and Pareto charts, (b)
charts displaying trends (run and control charts), (c) charts
displaying distributions (histograms), and (d) charts displaying
associations (scatter diagrams).
hhen creating graphic displays, keep in mind
the following questions

4 hhat am I trying to communicate?

4 hho is my audience?
4 hhat might prevent them from
understanding this display?
4 Does the display tell the entire story?
Significance of Diagrams and
Graphs
4 They give a birdƞs-eye view of the entire data and, therefore, the
information presented is easily understood.
4 It is a fact that as the number and magnitude of figures increases they
become more confusing and their analysis tends to be more stress.
4 The mind through the eye can more readily appreciate the significance
of figures in form of pictures than it can follow the figures themselves.
4 Since diagrams have attraction value, they are very popular in
exhibitions, fairs, conferences, board meetings and public functions.
4 They have a great memorising effect. The impressions created by
diagrams last much longer than those created by the figures presented
in a tabular form.
4 They facilitate comparison of data relating to different periods of time
of different regions. Diagrams help one in making quick and accurate
comparison of data.
General Rules for constructing
Diagrams
4 Title:- Every diagram must be given a suitable title. The title should
convey in as few words as possible the main idea that the diagrams
intend to portray.
4 Proportion between the width and height:- A proper proportion
between the height and width of the diagram should be maintained.
4 The scale showing the values should be in even numbers or in
multiples of five or ten odd values should be avoided. The scale should
also specify the size of the unit and what it represent for eg. Million,
number of persons in thousand etc.
4 Footnotes:- in order to clarify certain points about the diagram,
footnote may be given at the bottom of the diagram.
4 Index :- An index illustrating different types of lines or different shades,
colours should be given so that the reader can easily makes out the
meaning of the diagram.
4 Neatness and cleanliness
4 Simplicity
Types of diagrams
4 One dimensional diagrams, like bar diagrams.
4 Two dimensional diagrams, like rectangles,
squares and circle.
4 Three dimensional diagrams, like cubes,
cylinders and spheres.
4 Pictograms and cartograms.
ß |
  
ßar and pie charts use pictures to
compare the sizes, amounts, quantities,
or proportions of various items or
groupings of items.
h



ßar and pie charts can be used in defining or choosing problems to
work on, analyzing problems, verifying causes, or judging
solutions. They make it easier to understand data because they
present the data as a picture, highlighting the results. This is
particularly helpful in presenting results to team members,
managers, and other interested parties. ßar and pie charts
present results that compare different groups. They can also be
used with variable data that have been grouped. ßar charts
work best when showing comparisons among categories, while
pie charts are used for showing relative proportions of various
items in making up the whole (how the "pie" is divided up).



 ß 
  
Teams may choose from three types of bar charts,
depending on the type of data they have and what
they want to stress:
4 
e bar charts sort data nto s
e categor es

4 Groued bar charts d v de data nto grou w  n

eac caegory and ow co
 on beween
nd v du gou  we  beween cego e. (I
g ve
oe uefu nfo
 on n  
e o of
 e co
onen.)
4 
ed b  w  
e goued b 
ue goued d w  n ego e. (Tey

e
e bo e 
of e  nd e  goƞ
on b on o  o.)
4 
Öhoose the type of bar chart that stresses the results to be
focused on. Grouped and stacked bar charts will require at least two
classification variables. For a stacked bar chart, tally the data within
each category into combined totals before drawing the chart.
4 
Draw the vertical axis to represent the values of the variable
of comparison (e.g., number, cost, time). Establish the range for the
data by subtracting the smallest value from the largest. Determine the
scale for the vertical axis at approximately 1.5 times the range and
label the axis with the scale and unit of measure.
4 
Determine the number of bars needed. The number of bars
will equal the number of categories for simple or stacked bar charts.
For a grouped bar chart, the number of bars will equal the number of
categories multiplied by the number of groups. This number is
important for determining the length of the horizontal axis.
4 
Draw bars of equal width for each item and label the
categories and the groups. Provide a title for the graph that indicates
the sample and the time period covered by the data; label each bar.

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4 
Taking the data to be charted, calculate the percentage
contribution for each category. First, total all the values. Next, divide
the value of each category by the total. Then, multiply the product by
100 to create a percentage for each value.
4 
Draw a circle. Using the percentages, determine what portion
of the circle will be represented by each category. This can be done by
eye or by calculating the number of degrees and using a compass. ßy
eye, divide the circle into four quadrants, each representing 25 percent.
4 
Draw in the segments by estimating how much larger or
smaller each category is. Öalculating the number of degrees can be
done by multiplying the percent by 3.6 (a circle has 360 degrees) and
then using a compass to draw the portions.
4 
Provide a title for the pie chart that indicates the sample and
the time period covered by the data. Label each segment with its
percentage or proportion (e.g., 25 percent or one quarter) and with
what each segment represents (e.g., people who returned for a follow-
up visit; people who did not return).
 
ße careful not to use too many notations on the charts. Keep them as simple as
possible and include only the information necessary to interpret the chart.
Do not draw conclusions not justified by the data. For example, determining
whether a trend exists may require more statistical tests and probably cannot be
determined by the chart alone. Differences among groups also may require
more statistical testing to determine if they are significant.
hhenever possible, use bar or pie charts to support data interpretation. Do not
assume that results or points are so clear and obvious that a chart is not needed
for clarity.
A chart must not lie or mislead! To ensure that this does not happen, follow these
guidelines:
4 Scales must be in regular intervals
4 Öharts that are to be compared must have the same scale and symbols
4 Öharts should be easy to read
_




 



 









  
istogram
Frequency polygon
Öumulative Frequency Öurve or the
Ogives


A histogram is a set of vertical bars
whose areas are proportional to the
frequencies represented


Marks Number of std
0-10 8
-
10-20 12
20-30 22 -
30-40 35 -
40-50 40
-
50-60 60 
  

60-70 52
-

70-80 40 -
80-90 30 -
90-100 5 -
- - - - --





Drawing a frequency polygon requires marking
a dot at the mid point of the top horizontal
line of each bar and then joining these dots
by straight lines.The polygon so obtained is
then closed at each end by drawing straight
lines from the mid ƛpoint of the top base of
the first and the last rectangles to the mid-
point falling on the horizontal axis of the next
outlying interval with zero frequency.
 




Marks Number of std
a


 
0-10 8

10-20 12 

20-30 22 
 a 

 a
 
 
30-40 35 
40-50 40 

50-60 60



60-70 52  

70-80 40
80-90 30
90-100 5
Ö  





 
 
 

At times we are interested in knowing Ơhow
many workers of a factory earn less than Rs.
700per monthơ or how many worker can earn
more than Rs. 1000 per monthơ etc to
answers these questions , it is necessary to
add frequencies. hhen frequencies are
added, they are called cumulative
frequencies. The curve obtained by plotting
cumulative frequencies is called a cumulative
frequency curve of an Ogive.
 
  
  !

4 The Ɲless thanƞ method

4 The Ɲmore thanƞ method
]
  

4 To determine as well as to portray the number or
proportion of cases above or below a given value.
4 Ogives are also drawn for determining certain values
graphically such as median,quartiles, deciles etc
4 To compare two or more frequency distributions.
Generally there is less overlapping when comparing
several Ogives on the same grid than when
comparing several simple frequency curves in this
manner.
'


 










Generally, in a frequency distribution, the

values cluster around a central value.
This property of concentration of the
values around a central value is called
central Tendency. The central value
around which there is concentration is
called measures of central Tendency.
 



 








4 Arithmetic mean (A.M.)

4 Median
4 Mode
4 Geometric Mean (G.M.)
4 armonic Mean (.M.)
Desired qualities of an ideal
measure of central tendency
4 It should be easy to understand . Its computation
procedure should be simple .
4 It should be rigidly defined.
4 It should be based on all the values.
4 It should not be affected too much by abnormal
extreme values.
4 It should be capable if further algebraic treatment so
that it could be used in further analysis of data.
4 It should be stable. That is, the measure should be
such that sampling variation in the value of measure
should be least.
  
"

The most popular and widely used measure of representing
the entire data by one value is called ƝAverageƞ or
Arithmetic Mean. It value is obtained by adding together
all the items and by dividing this total by the number of
items .
Arithmetic Mean may either be
4 Simple arithmetic mean

4 heighted arithmetic mean

| 

   

"

4 Algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of
values from their A.M. is zero.
4 Sum of the squared deviations of a set of
values is a minimum when deviations are
taken around A.M.
4 Let x1 be the A.M. of a set of n1 values. And
let x2 be the A.M. of another set of n2 values.
Then , the A.M. of two sets of values put
together is (n1x1+n2x2)/ (n1+n2). It is also
known as combined A.M.
"
   
"

4 It is rigidly defined.
4 The logic behind its computation can be
easily understood. It can easily computed.
4 It can be easily adopted for further statistical
analysis.
4 It is based on all the values.
4 It is more stable than any other average.
4 It can be calculated even when some of the
values are equal to zero or negative.



   

"

4 It is highly affected by abnormal extreme
values.
4 Since it is based on all the values, even if one
of the values is missing. It cannot be
calculated.
4 Sometimes, the A.M. may be a value which is
not assumed by the variable.
4 It is a calculated value, and not based on
position in the series.
"

Median of a set of values is the middle
most value when they are arranged in
the ascending order of magnitude. It is
a value that is greater than half of the
values and lesser the remaining half.
The median is denoted by ƝMƞ
"



 
"

Merits
1) The logic behind its computation is easily
understood. It can be easily computed.
2) Even when some of the extreme values are
missing, it can be computed.
3) It is not affected by abnormal extreme values.
4) It can be used foe the study of qualitative data
also.
Demerits
1) it is not based on all values .
2) it cannot be used in deep statistical analysis.












The arithmetic mean may be misinterpreted as the median to imply that

most values are higher or lower than is actually the case. If elements in
the sample space increase arithmetically, when placed in some order,
then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example,
consider the sample space {1,2,3,4}. The average is 2.5, as is the
median. owever, when we consider a sample space that cannot be
arranged into an arithmetic progression, such as {1,2,4,8,16}, the
median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case the
arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. hhen one looks at the
arithmetic average of a sample space, one must note that the average
value can vary significantly from most values in the sample space.
There are applications of this phenomenon in fields such as economics. For
example, since the 1980s in the United States median income has
increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.





#$
%
Find the arithmetic mean of -4, 3, 18, 0, 0, and -10.
%
Sum the numbers. Divide by 6 because there are 6 numbers.
The answer is 7/6, or 1.167
  screte ser es

F
d the m ss
 freque
c es
the follow
 freque
cy d str but o
f t s k
ow
that the
mea
of the d str but o
s 1.46 No. of acc de
ts (x): 0 1 2 3 4
5
Total 200
Freque
cy (f): 46 ? ? 25 10 5
COMPUTATION OF ARITHMATIC MEAN
™f = N = 86+f1+f2 ™f1x1=140+f1+2f2
N= 200
f fx
X Oâ 200= 86 +f1+f2
Oâ f1+f2=114+f2+f2
Oâ f1+f2=114
Also, Mea
=1.46 ²²²²²²²
0 46 0
²²²²²²²²²²²²±1
1 f1 f1 Oâ 1.46= ™f x N
Oâ 1.46=140+f1+2f2200
2 f2 2f2
Oâ 292=140+f1+2f2
3 25 75 Oâ F1+2f2=150 ²²²²²²²²
²²²²²²²²²²²²²2
4 10 40
Solv
 1,2
5 5 25 Oâ F1=76 a
d f2=38
 Med a
(d rect ser es)
Example 1
The marks of nine students in a geography test that had a maximum possible mark of 50 are given below:
47 35 37 32 38 39 36 34 35
F
d the med a
of th s set of data values.

 
Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
32 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 47
The f fth data value, 36, s the m ddle value
th s arra
eme
t.

 


 



If the number of values in the data set is even, then the
  s the averae of
the two m ddle values.
 Example 2
Find the median of the following data set:
12 18 16 21 10 13 17 19


 
Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
10 12 13 16 17 18 19 21
The
umber of values
the data set s 8, wh ch s eve
. So, the med a
s the averae of the two m ddle values.

 

 
There are 8 values in the data set.

The fourth a
d f fth scores, 16 a
d 17, are
the m ddle. That s, there s
o o
e m ddle value.
 È
%
alf of the values in the data set lie below the median and half lie above the
median.
The median is the most commonly quoted figure used to measure property
prices. The use of the median avoids the problem of the mean property price
which is affected by a few expensive properties that are not representative of
the general property market.
Med a
( co
t
uous ser es)
Calculate the med a
from the follow
 d str but o
:
Class: 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30
Freque
cy: 5 6 15 10 5
30-35 35-40 40-45
4 2 2
SOLUTION: F rst cumulat ve table to complete med a
.
FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE
CLASS FREQUENCY
5-10 5 5
10-15 6 11
15-20 15 26
20-25 10 36
25-30 5 41
30-35 4 45
35-40 2 47
40-45 2 49

SO,
N=49 & N2=24.5ĺThe cumulat ve freque
cy just reater tha
N2 s 26 a
d correspo
d
 class
s 15-20
(Med a
class) L=15, f=15, F=11, h=5
:. Med a
= ð
  = 15+24.5-1115*5 =19.5
Mode
The mode or modal value of a distribution is
that value of the variable for which the
frequency is maximum. In order to compute
the mode of a series of individual
observations. he first convert it into a
discrete series frequency distribution by
preparing a frequency table. From the
frequency table, we identify the value having
maximum frequency. The value of variable
to obtain is the mode or modal value
Mode
The mode has applications in printing. For example, it
is important to print more of the most popular books;
because printing different books in equal numbers
would cause a shortage of some books and an
oversupply of others.
Likewise, the mode has applications in
manufacturing. For example, it is important to
manufacture more of the most popular shoes;
because manufacturing different shoes in equal
numbers would cause a shortage of some shoes and
an oversupply of others
Obtain the value of the following:
l ƒ lower limit
h ƒ width
fx ƒ frequency
f1 ƒ frequency of the class preceding
f2 ƒ frequency of the class following.
MODE´&' ( )*' (  )+
Relationship among mean, median
and mode

MODE= 3median ƛ 2mean

OR
MEDIAN = mode+Ô (mean ƛ mode)
OR
MEAN = mode + 3/2 (median ƛ mode)
Example
Find the mode of the following data set:
48 44 48 45 42 49 48
oltion:
The mode is 48 since it occrs most often.

È
%
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 !


 


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, 

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Analysing Data

4 The mean, median and mode of a data set are collectively known as


 
 

 as these three measures focus on
where the data is centred or clustered. To analyse data using the
mean, median and mode, we need to use the most appropriate
measure of central tendency. The following points should be
remembered:
4 The mean is useful for predicting future results when there are no
extreme values in the data set. owever, the impact of extreme
values on the mean may be important and should be considered. E.g.
The impact of a stock market crash on average investment returns.
4 The median may be more useful than the mean when there are
extreme values in the data set as it is not affected by the extreme
values.
4 The mode is useful when the most common item, characteristic or
value of a data set is required.