UNIT NO: 01

Introduction to Engineering Materials

• Please do not blindly follow the
presentation files only, refer it just as
reference material.
• More concentration should on class
room work and text books or
reference books.
Introduction to engineering materials
 Introduction to engineering materials and their classification, properties and
applications, Crystal structures (BCC, FCC and HCP systems),
 Indexing of lattice planes & directions,
 Lattice parameters such as (coordination number, no. of atoms per unit cell,
atomic packing factor, density).
 Basic definitions : System, Phase, Variable, Component, Alloy, Solid
solution. Hume Ruther's rule of solid solubility,
 Concept of solidification of pure metals & alloys, Nucleation:
homogeneous and heterogeneous, Different Microstructures of metals, non-
metals and cast iron,
 Mechanism of elastic and plastic deformation, Dislocation theory and strain
hardening theory,
 Cooling curves, Plotting of Equilibrium diagrams,
 Lever rule, Coring, Eutectic system, Partial eutectic and isomorphous
system,
 Defects in Material
 MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

What is Material ?
• Basic substance that have mass and occupy space
• It can be natural or human made
• There are now about 3,00,000 different known materials

What is Materials Science?

• Materials science involve investigating the relationships that exist
between the structure and properties of materials
• Material science focuses on underlying relationship between synthesis
and processing, structure and properties of materials
What is Materials Engineering?
• Materials engineering involve, on the basis of these structure property
correlation, design/engineer the structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties
• In material engineering focus is on how to translate or transform
4 materials into useful devices or materials 03/04/2022
 MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
Four components that involve in the design,
production and utilization of materials?
1. Processing
2. Structure
3. Properties
Classification: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical and deteriorative/chemical.
4. Performance

The relationship between the four components:

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 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymer
4. Composites
5. Semiconductors

Fig.1 Venn diagram showing three basic

material types plus composites

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 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals
• Most Utilized Engineering Materials
• Properties that Satisfy a Wide Range of
Engineering Design Requirements
• General Properties:
• Strength & Stiffness 
• Toughness & Formability 
• Electrical & Thermal Conductivity 
• Usually used in Alloys (mixed of 2 or more metals
• Examples: Steel, Aluminium, magnesium, zinc, cast
iron, titanium, copper, nickel, etc.
7
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 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

1. Metals

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)
8 Fig.2. Metals (a. Steel; b. Aluminium; c. Copper;03/04/2022
d. Titanium)
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

2. Ceramics
• A Compound containing metallic & non-metallic
elements formed by the action of heat
• General Properties:
• Hard & Brittle
• Compressive Strength 
• Resistance to chemical action and weathering
• Thermal Insulator  (Thermal Conductivity )
• Examples: sand, brick, glass, graphite, tile, pottery,
etc.

9
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 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING MATERIALS

2. Ceramics

(a) (b)

(d) (c)
Fig.2. Ceramics (a. tile; b. pottery;
10 c. sand; d. glass)
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 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

3. Polymers
• Organic Compounds, formed by repeating structural unit (Mers), where
the atoms share electron to form very large molecules

Fig.3.

• General Properties:
• Light Weight
• Low Thermal & Electrical Conductivity
• Moderate Resistance on Inorganic Acids, Bases & Salts
• Examples: PVC, polyethylene, polypropylene, rubber, nylon, Teflon,

11
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CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

3. Polymers

(a) (b)

(d) (c)
Fig.4. Polymers (a. polyethylene; b. PVC;
12 c. rubber; d. melamine)
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 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS

4. Composites
• Combination of Two or More Different Materials

• Combination of the Best Characteristics of Each

Components Materials

• Better properties than any individuals component

• Examples: fiberglass, textiles, vehicle tires, wood

papers, etc

13
 CLASSIFICATION of ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
4. Composites

(a) (b)

(d) (c)

Fig.4. Polymers (a. carbon fibres; b. fiberglass;

14 c. wood; d. textile)
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Functional classification of materials. Notice that metals, plastics,
and ceramics occur in different categories.
15
A limited number of
examples in each category is provided
Crystal Structures

 Space Lattice – 3D  Unit Cell – Repeating

arrangement of atoms unit of the space
in space lattice is called as unit
cell

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 Unit Cell
 The unit cell and, consequently, the
entire lattice, is uniquely determined
by the six lattice constants: a, b, c, α, β
and γ.
• Only 1/8 of each lattice point in a unit
cell can actually be assigned to that
cell.
• Each unit cell in the figure can be
associated with 8 x 1/8 = 1 lattice point.

Crystal Structure
17
Crystal Structure in Metals
Majority of Metals falls in either of the
following crystal structure

 BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)

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Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

Examples:α-iron, Mo, W, V, Ta, Cr, Na, K

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Crystal Structure in Metals
BCC (Body Centered Cubic)

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Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

Octahedral molecular geometry

Examples:γ-iron, Cu,Au,Ag,Al,Pb, Ni, Pt

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Crystal Structure in Metals
 FCC (Face Centered Cubic)

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Crystal Structure in Metals
 HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed)

Examples: Mg,Zn,Be,Cd,Co,Zr,Ti
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 Indexing of Lattice Planes
 Orientation of the plane in the lattice is indicated
by index of the plane
 Definition: Miller indices are the reciprocals of
the fractional intercepts which the plane makes
with the crystallographic axes.

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Indexing of Lattice Planes
The procedure for determining the Miller indices for
the cubic crystal plane is as follows :
Step1:Choose the plane that does not pass through the
origin at (o,o,o)

Step 2:Determine the intercepts of the plane in terms of the

crystallographic axes x,y,and z. these intercepts may be in
fractions.

Step 3:Find the reciprocals of these intercepts.

Step
4:Clear fractions and determine the smallest set of
whole number which are in the same ratio as the intercepts.
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Indexing of Lattice Planes
(001)
(100)

(010) (010)

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Indexing of Lattice Planes
(101)
(110)

(011) (110)

27
Origin
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Indexing of Lattice Planes
Origin
(111)

(111)
Origin
(111)

Origin

28 (111) 03/04/2022
Indexing of Lattice Planes

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Indexing of Lattice Directions
 Definition: Miller indices of crystallographic
direction are the vector components of the
direction resolved along each of the coordinates
axes and reduced to the smallest integers.

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Indexing of Lattice Directions
The procedure for determining the Miller indices for
the Crystallographic Direction :

 Step 1:Draw a straight line OD passing through the origin

and parallel to RS
 Step 2:Take any point on line OD such as P and draw
perpendiculars on X-Y, Y-Z and Z-X planes.
 Step 3:Find the fractional intercepts of OL, OM and ON
in terms of axial units (i.e. OL/OA, OM/OB, ON/OC).
 Step 4:Converts these intercepts to smallest integers by
multiplication or division throughout
 Step 5:Enclose these in square brackets, which represent
the Miller indices of the line RS.

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Indexing of Lattice Directions
[101]

[110]
[011] [111]

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Indexing of Lattice Directions
[1 1 0]

[110] Origin
Origin
Origin

33
[1 1 1] 1/2 03/04/2022 [210]
Important Crystallographic Plans

(100)
(110)

(111)

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 Important Crystallographic Directions

[100]

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Parameters of Unit Cells
 Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

 Atomic Packing Factor

 Co-ordination Number

 Planar Atomic Density

 Linear Atomic Density

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 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. BCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 0
No of Atoms at center: 1
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +0/2+1/1
=2

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 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. FCC:
No of Atoms at corners:8
No of Atoms at faces: 6
No of Atoms at center: 0
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 8/8 +6/2+0/1
=4

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 Parameters of Unit Cells
 No of Atoms per unit Cell
1. HCP:
No of Atoms at corners:12
No of Atoms at faces: 2
No of Atoms at center: 3
No of Atoms per unit cell
= 12/6 +2/2+3/1
=6

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Parameters of Unit Cells
 Co-ordination Number :- The number of
nearest equidistant neighboring atoms
surrounding an atom under consideration is
called co-ordination Number (or Ligancy)
BCC:8 FCC: 12 HCP:12

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 03/04/2022
41
APF :- The fractional amount of volume occupied by atoms in unit cell is
called atomic packing factor (APF)
BCC:0.68 FCC: 0.74 HCP:0.74
Volume density
 VD can be calculated as follows
 VD (ρv) = Wt. of atom in the unit cell
Vol. of unit cell

 VD (ρv) = (Avg. no of atoms in the unit cell * Atomic wt.)

Avogadro's no (N) * Vol. of unit cell

-----------------------(1.16)

= Sum of atomic weights of atoms in the unit cell

N = Avogadro's no
V = Volume of unit cell

 Eq 1.16 gives the theoretical volume density of the metal on

the assumption that atoms are like hard spheres
Related terms and their definitions :
System
• Thermodynamically, a system is an isolated body of matter which is under study.
• A substance or a group of substances so isolated from its surroundings that
it is totally unaffected by the surroundings but changes in its overall composition,
temperature, pressure or total volume can be allowed.
• A system may contain solids, liquids, gases or their combination.
• It may have metals ,non-metals separately or in combined form.
Phase
• A phase is a substance or a portion of matter which is homogenous,
physically distinct and mechanically separable..
• Physically distinct and mechanically separable means that the phase will have a
definite boundary surface.
• Different phases are given different names or symbols like α (alpha),ß (Beta), γ
(Gamma), etc.
Variables :
• A particular phase exists under various conditions of temp., pressure, and
concentration. These parameters are called as variables of the phase system.

Equilibrium:
• A system is at equilibrium if its free energy is at a minimum, given a specified
combination of temperature, pressure and composition.

Component:
• Components are pure metals and/or compounds of which an alloy is composed. For
example, in a copper–zinc brass, the components are Cu and Zn.
• It refers to a independent chemical species. The components of a system may be
elements, ions or compounds.
• A component can exist in many phases.
• Water exists as ice, liquid water, and water vapor.
• Carbon exists as graphite and diamond.
Alloys
• Pure metals because of their poor physical and mechanical properties are seldom
used in engineering applications. Most of useful metallic materials are combinations
of metals which are called alloys.
• An alloy can be defined as a substance possessing metallic properties, having
metallic bond and composed of two or more than two elements out of which atleast
one of them is metal.
• Metal present in larger proportion is called base metal while other metallic or non-
metallic element is known as alloying element.
• Elements may combine in different ways to form alloys.
• These elements of alloys usually show complete solubility in liquid state. However,
on cooling them to solid state, they may form mechanical mixtures or
homogenous phases.
 Solid solutions
• Solid Solution: It is an alloy in which the atoms of solute are distributed in
the solvent and has the same structure as that of the solvent.

 Solid is one kind of crystal in which both metals are present.

 SS forms readily when the solvent and solute atoms have similar atomic sizes
and electron structure
 Eg. Brass is th SS of cu and Zn
 Cu and Zn form a substitutional solid solution.

Solid Solution
Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution Interstitial Solid Solution

Ordered

Disordered
 Solid solutions

Disordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution

Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Interstitial Solid Solution

 Types of Solid Solutions
• When a solid solution form, the atoms of alloying element (solute) occupy certain
places in the lattice structure of the base metal (solvent).
• Depending upon the types of places occupied by the solute atoms, solid solutions
formed are of two types
1) Substitutional Solid Solution
• If atoms of alloying element (solute) replace
the atoms of the base metal (solvent) and
occupy their normal lattice sites, the resulting
solid solution is known as Substitutional
solid solution.
• For example, Copper atoms may substitute
Nickel atoms without disturbing their FCC
structure of Nickel.
• Thus they have unlimited solid solubility
whereas in case of Brass, FCC Copper
atoms (base/solvent) are replaced by HCP i.e.
Zinc atoms (alloying element/solute) which
has limited solubility.
 2) Interstitial Solid Solution
• In Interstitial Solid Solution, the alloying element (solute) atoms do not replace the
base metal (solvent) atoms but enter into the empty spaces of the
lattice structure of the solvent atoms.
• As the empty spaces of lattice structure are limited in size, the interstitial solid
solution can only from when the solute atom is small enough to fit into these
spaces.
• The radii of atoms of commercial alloys is in the range of 1.2-1.6A . It means that
0

the atoms with atomic radius less than 1A are likely to form interstitial solid
0

solution.
• It may be noted that if the alloying element is a transition element, there are
maximum chances of formation of Interstitial Solid Solution. This is not only
because of their small atomic radii but also due to their unusual electronic
structure.

• Examples of Interstitial Solid Solutions are – C

in Steel causing hardening, N in Steel causing
hardening, H in Steel during welding causing
embrittlement of weld area.
 Types of Substitutional Solid Solutions
• Depending on the order of replacement of base
metal (solvent) atoms by alloying element
(solute) atoms, there are two types of solid
solutions
1.Disordered or Random Substitutional solid
solution
• This is formed when the alloying element
(solute) atoms do not occupy any specific
orderly positions but replace the atoms in lattice
structure of base metal (solvent) atoms at
random then the phase is known as disordered
or random substitutional solid solution. It is
normally observed at high temperatures.
2.Ordered Substitutional solid solution
• This is formed when the alloying element
(solute) atoms occupy specific orderly positions
in the lattice structure of base metal (solvent)
atoms then the phase is known as ordered
substitutional solid solution. It is normally
observed at room temperatures.
 Hume Rothery Rule’s for Solid Solution
• Hume Rothery’s rules govern the formation of substitutional solid solution
and aid in the proper selection of such alloying elements :

1. Crystal Structure Factor

2. Relative Size Factor
3. ChemicalAffinity Factor
4. Relative Valance Factor

1. Crystal Structure Factor of two metals

(elements) should be same.
Metals having same crystal structure will
have greater solubility

Prof. Naman M. Dave

 2. Relative Size Factor
• Atomic diameter shall be fairly similar, since atoms differing directly
greatly in size cannot be accommodated readily in the same structure (as a
substitutional solid solution).
• When the term size factor is employed and extensive solid solubility is
encountered only when the two different atoms differ size by less than
15%,called a favorable size factor.
• If the relative size factor is between 8%-15%, the alloy system usually
shows a minimum and If this factor is greater than 15% substitutional
solid solution formation is very limited.
 3. Chemical affinity Factor
• The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the more restricted
their solubility is their solid solubility.
• When their chemical affinity of two metals is great, two metals tend
to form an intermediate phase rather than a solid solution.
• Generally, the farther apart the elements are in the periodic table the
greater the chemical affinity.
• If the elements have
similar
electronegativity,
they will make a
solid solution,
• if they have a
different
electronegativity, a
intermetallic
compound Prof. Naman M. Dave
 4. Relative valence Factor
• Consider a two atoms, one with large valance electrons and the other
with small number of valance electron.
• It has been found that high valance can dissolve only a small amount
of a lower valance metal , while the lower valance metal may have
good solubility for higher valance metal.
 Al and Si are partially soluble in each other. Justify this
sentence by using Hume Rothery Rules of solid solubility
 Given Data
 Al atom radius (RAl)– 0.143 nm
 Al crystal structure – FCC
 Al Electronegativity – 1.6
 Al Valancy - +3
 Si atom Radius (RSi) – 0.117 nm
 Si crystal structure – Diamond Cubic
 Si Electronegativity – 1.9
 Si Valancy - +4
Concept of solidification of pure metals & alloys

 Solidification occurs by the nucleation and growth of crystals in

the melt.
 The first step- formation of nuclei.
 The nucleus can be regarded as a small cluster of atoms having the
right crystalline arrangement.
 When the melt is cooled below its melting , nuclei begin to form in
many parts of the melt at the same time.
 The rate of nuclei formation depends on the degree of
undercooling or supercooling and also on the presence of
impurities.
 Growth of nuclei occur by diffusion process which is also a
function of temperature and hence the rate of nucleation and the
rate of growth are functions of temperature.
 G
N

N or G

Under cooling
Temperature
Nucleation : homogeneous
 Nucleation: localized formation of a distinct thermodynamics
phase.
 Most nucleation processes are physical, rather than chemical.
 Nucleation normally occurs at nucleation sites on surface
contacting the liquid or vapor. Suspended particles or minute
bubbles also provide nucleation sites. This is called
heterogeneous nucleation.
 Nucleation without preferential nucleation sites is homogeneous
nucleation. Homogeneous nucleation occurs spontaneously and
randomly, but it requires undercooling or supercooling.
 Homogeneous nucleation occurs with much more difficulty in
the interior of a uniform substance.
 Consider volume of liquid phase under condition such that
formation of solid is thermodynamically possible i.e. ∆fv is
negative
 Now spherical particle of radius r is to form, an interface must
be created between solid and surrounding liquid
 So overall change in free energy required to form spherical
solid is given by
∆f = 4πr2ᵞ + 4/3πr3∆fv
ᵞ = energy required to create one unit area interface
Change in free energy = energy needed to create interface +
energy released by volume of solidifying phase or
= surface energy + volume energy
 First term is always positive and second term is negative for
any phase transformation under consideration
 From above fig. initially for smaller values of r volume energy
is smaller than surface energy and it becomes greater for larger
values of r since it varies as r3
 Particle less than r* will not able to grow (embryos) and
redissolve and particles greater than r* are called as nuclei and
grow
 Heterogeneous Nucleation
 It occurs at surfaces, imperfections and severely deformed regions which
lowers the critical free energy
 In molten metal foreign particles are present as impurities which lowers the
liquid solid interface energy which helps in nucleation
 Basic requirement of heterogeneous nucleation is ability of liquid metal to wet
the foreign particle and also ability of foreign body to be getting wetted by liquid
metal
 After initial nucleation
 More solid may be deposited upon the first nuclei
 More nuclei may form
 A different phase may occur in the melt
 Heterogeneous Nucleation

 If foreign matter (fm) is wetted by both solid and liquid, the force equilibrium
where the three surfaces i.e. foreign matter (fm), solid (s), and liquid (L) meets is

ᵞfm-s = ᵞfm.L - ᵞs.L.cosɵ

 Nuclei will form on foreign matter or impurity present
 From above equation it can be seen that
 fms surface replaces an equivalent amount of fmL surface
 ᵞfms is less than ᵞfmL

 ∆fc (heterogeneous) is less than ∆fc(homogenous)

 No supercooling or undercooling is required for heterogeneous nucleation
 16

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

steel (ferrite + pearlite) (b) Eutectoid
steel (c) Hypereutectoid steel
(pearlite with network of cementite)
 24

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectic steel

(ledeburite + pearlite +cementite) (b)
Eutectic steel (ledeburite) (c)
Hypereutectic steel (ledeburite +
primary cementite)
 Imperfections in crystals

Crystal are like people. It is the

defects that tend to make them
interesting

Colin Humphreys

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 Imperfections in crystals
Perfect crystals do not exist; even the best crystals
have 1ppb defects.
Imperfections or Defect: imperfection or "mistake" in
the regular periodic arrangement of atoms in a
crystal
Defects, even in very small concentrations, can have a
dramatic impact on the properties of a material.
In many situations defects are desirable.

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Imperfections in crystals

Lattice Vibrations
Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
 Impurities
 Vacancies
One Dimension Defects (Line Defect)
 Edge Dislocation
 Screw Dislocation
Two Dimension Defects (Surface Defect)
 Grain Boundaries
 Twin Boundaries
 Stacking Faults
 Low Angle Grain Boundaries

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 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Vacancy Interstitial
Non-ionic
crystals Impurity
Self Interstitial
Point
Defects Substitutional
Ionic Frenkel defect
crystals

Schottky defect

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 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)
o Vacancy
A vacancy is referred to an atomic site
from where the atom is missing.
o Impurity
An impurity is referred to an foreign atom
which substitutes or replaces a parent
atom in the crystal (substitutional
impurity) or occupies the void space in the
parent crystal (interstitial impurity).
o Self Interstitial
self-
Self interstitial defect occurs when an interstitia
atom of lattice gets occupied in the own l

void space in the same crystal.

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 Zero Dimension Defects (Point Defect)

Interstitial
vacancy
impurity

Substitutional
impurity
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 Defects in ionic solids

Frenkel defect

Cation vacancy
+
cation interstitial

Schottky defect

Cation vacancy
+
79 anion vacancy
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 One Dimension Defects
(Line Defect) :Dislocations

These defects produce lattice distortions

centered about a line.
Line of atoms missing from regular site
Dislocation is the line between slipped
region and unslipped region

The Main Two Types of Dislocations:

Edge Dislocation

80 Screw Dislocation 03/04/2022

 Edge Dislocation

Dislocations are thought of as extra lattice

planes inserted in the crystal or
missing of plane of atoms

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 Edge Dislocation

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 Edge Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
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 Screw Dislocation

The screw dislocations are formed by shear

stresses which are applied in the regions of perfect
crystal which have been separated by a cutting
plane
It can be imagined as being produced by cutting
the crystal partway through with a knife and then
shearing one part of the crystal w.r.t. the other
parallel to the cut.
These shear stresses create a region of distorted
crystal lattice in the form of a spiral ramp of
distorted atoms.
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Mixed Dislocation
 i ne
L
t ion
ca t
i slo
D b || t
c rew
S

3
87 2 03/04/2022
1
 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

Dislocation is created Dislocations are formed

1 by shear stresses which
by insertion of extra
are applied in the regions
half plane in the lattice of perfect crystal
which have been
separated by a cutting
plane

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 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

3 Burgers vector is Burgers vector is

perpendicular to the parallel to the
dislocation dislocation

In positive Edge In positive Screw

4 Dislocation Extra Dislocation Left-
half plane above the handed spiral ramp
slip plane

b parallel to t
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 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

In negative Edge In negative Screw

5
Dislocation Extra Dislocation Right-
half plane below handed spiral ramp
the slip plane

b antiparallel to t

The lattice above the

6 Atomic planes
positive dislocation is
surrounding the
in compression and
distorsion undergoes
lattice below is in
shear distortion
tension. Opposite in
negative dislocation
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 Edge Screw
Dislocation Dislocation

During plastic During plastic

7
deformation, direction deformation, direction
of dislocation line is of dislocation line is
parallel to slip perpendicular to slip
direction direction

At elevated At elevated
8 temperature,
temperature,
dislocation leave slip dislocation leave slip
plane by the processes plane by the processes
of dislocation climb of cross-slip

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Two Dimension Defects
(Surface Defect)

Grain Boundaries

Twin Boundaries

Stacking Faults

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 Grain Boundaries

Grain Boundary is a defect which separate grain of

different orientation from each other in
polycrystalline material
Grain
Boundary

Grain 2
Grain 1

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 Grain Boundaries

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 Twin Boundary

Twin Boundary
Atoms on one side of the
boundary are in mirror
positions with respect to
atoms on the other side of
the boundary

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 Twin Boundary
The volume of material which has an orientation
similar to the mirror image of the matrix
orientation is called a twin.

The mirror is called the twinning plane or

composition plane.

Twins may form during solidification,

deformation or during annealing.

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 Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane A
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 Stacking Faults

Plane A

Plane B
Plane C
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 Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
Sequence with Stacki
Perfect Sequence
99
Fault
03/04/2022
 Stacking Faults

C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
C C
B B
A A
100 Intrinsic Fault Extrinsic
03/04/2022 Fault
 Stacking Faults

C A
B C
A B
C A
B B HCP
A A
C Stacking C
B fault B
A A

FCC FCC

101 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation

102 03/04/2022
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION

F Linear-
elastic

Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-

elastic
103

03/04/2022
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

linear linear
elastic
Plastic means permanent! elastic

104 plastic
03/04/2022
 Single Crystal Slip
Slip in Zinc
single crystal
specimen
after
tensioned
force

Small step of
slip on the
surface
parallel to
105 one another 03/04/2022
106 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Slip
Plastic deformation by slip occurs by movement or sliding of one
plane of atoms over the other.
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved on slip plane and
along slip direction exceeds a critical value (CRSS). The atoms
move an integral number of atomic distances along the slip plane
and a setp is produced.

107 03/04/2022
 Slip System

 Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage

Highest planar densities
Wide interplanar spacing

 Slip direction - direction of movement

Highest linear densities

 Slip Systems:
No of Slip Planes x No of Slip Directions

108 03/04/2022
 Slip Systems

Structure Slip plane Slip Slip systems

direction

HCP {0001} <1120> 1X3=3

FCC {111} <110> 4X3=12

BCC {110} <111> 6X2=12

{211} <111> 12X1=12

{321} <111> 24X1=24

109 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Second important plastic deformation mechanism which
can occur in metals is twinning.
 In this process a part of the atomic lattice is deformed so
that it forms a mirror image of the undeformed lattice
next to it.

110 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 The crystallographic plane of
symmetry between the
undeformed and deformed parts of metal lattice is
called the twining plane.

111 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Twining occurs in specific direction and on
certain planes.
Structure Typical Twin plane Twin direction
examples

BCC  - Fe, Ta (112) [111]

FCC Ag, Au, Cu (111) [112]

HCP Zn, Cd, Mg, (10 12 ) [1011]

Ti
112 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
Two Types of Twinning:
 Mechanical twins
 Annealing twins

 Mechanical twins are produced in BCC or HCP metals

 Annealing Twins are observed in FCC metals

113 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Twining is not a dominant deformation mechanism in
metals which posses many possible slip systems.

 Twining generally occurs when the slip systems are

restricted or when twining stress is lower than the
stress for slip.

114 03/04/2022
 Plastic Deformation by Twinning
 Theimportant role of twining in plastic deformation
comes not from the strain produced by the twining
process but from the fact that orientation changes
resulting from twining may place new slip systems in
a favourable orientation w.r.t. the stress axis so that
additional slip can take place.

 Thus twining is
important in the overall deformation
of metals with a low number of slip systems, such as
the HCP metals.

115 03/04/2022
 Slip Vs Twinning
Slip Twinning

1 Slip is shear deformation process In twinning, a part of the atomic

that moves atoms on one plane lattice is deformed so that it
(slip plane) relative to their form a mirror image of the
initial positions by many underformed lattice next to it.
interatomic distances in
particular direction (slip
direction)

116 03/04/2022
 Slip Twinning

2
In slip, atoms move a whole In twinning, the atoms move
number of interatomic spacing. fractional amounts depending
on their distance from the
twinning plane.
3
In slip, there is very little change In twinning, there is complete
in lattice orientation. change in orientation of
deformed lattice w.r.t.
undeformed lattice.
4 Stress required to start slip is Stress required to start
lower. twinning is higher.
117 03/04/2022
 Slip Twinning

5 Stress required to propagate slip Stress required to propagate

is higher because of the twinning is lower.
interaction of moving
dislocations with obstacles.

6 Under microscope slip appears Under microscope twinning

as thin lines. appear as broad lines or bands.

7 Slip is a dominant mechanism for Twinning is not dominant

plastic deformation. mechanism for plastic
deformation but indirectly it
assists the slip by creating new
slip systems favorable for plastic
deformation.
118 03/04/2022
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

Experimental measurements showed that at

room temperature the major source for plastic
deformation is the dislocation motion through the
119 03/04/2022
crystal lattice
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

120 03/04/2022
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

121 03/04/2022
 Dislocations & plastic deformation

 As shown in figure, the dislocation moves across

the slip plane and leaves a step when it comes
out at the surface of the crystal.
 As the dislocations sweep through the crystal,
each one of them causes a displacement of the
top part of the crystal w.r.t. the bottom by a
distance equal to the magnitude of its Burgers
vector.

122 03/04/2022
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Obstacle

Dislocation

123 03/04/2022
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

124 03/04/2022
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
Frank-Read source - A pinned dislocation that, under an
applied stress, produces additional dislocations. This
source of regeneration of dislocation is call
Frank – Reed source of multiplication of dislocations

125 03/04/2022
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory

Dislocations entangle
with one another

During plastic deformation

Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.

0.9 mm

Ti alloy after cold working:

126 03/04/2022
 Strain-Hardening or Work Hardening
Dislocation Theory
 Thus by Frank Reed source of multiplication of
dislocation, dislocation density increase in crystal
during plastic deformation.
 With increased number of dislocations more stress is
required to move them because of interference of
these dislocations to each other i.e. stress has to be
increased continuously to move the continuously
increasing dislocations.

127 03/04/2022
Phase rule
 Phase rule: Gibb’s phase rule describes the thermodynamic state
of a material.
 This famous rule is used to determine the number of phases that
can coexist in equilibrium in a given system.
 It has the general form: F = C – P + 2
 C is the number of components, usually elements or compounds, in
the system.
 F is the number of degrees of freedom, or number of variables, such
as temperature, pressure, or composition that are allowed to change
independently without changing the number of phases in
equilibrium.
 P is the number of phases present
 The constant “2” in the equation implies that both temperature and
pressure are allowed to change.
Gibbs Phase Rule
 Gibbs' phase rule describes the degrees of freedom (F) in a closed
system at equilibrium, in terms of the number of separate phases (P)
and the number of chemical components (C) in the system.

F+P=C+2
 Where “2” represent two external variables, pressure & temperature.

 For metal and alloy we take pressure 1 atm.

 So, F = C –P + 1
 F>0 and P<C+1(degree of freedom can not be zero.)
Cooling curves
 Types of cooling curve
 For pure metal
 For binary solid solution alloys
 For binary eutectic alloy
 For off eutectic binary alloys
Cooling curve for pure metal.
 Liquid metal cools from A -> B
 At B solidification start at c solidification is complete.
 Between B and C the system contain both solid + liquid phase.
 Between C and D solid phase appear
 Now, Degree of freedom
 At AB, F = 1 A
 At BC, F = 0
 At CD, F =1 B C

D
Cooling curve for Binary solid
solution.
 Liquid metal cools from A -> B
 At B solidification start, At c solidification is complete.
 The temperature range between B and C is known as Freezing Zone.
 This freezing zone is due to change in the composition of solid and liquid
phases.
 Between C and D solid phase appear
A
 Degree of freedom
 At AB, F = 2 B
C
 At BC, F = 1
 At CD, F = 2
D
For binary eutectic alloy

 L ----- S1 + S2
 Liquid metal cools from A -> B
 At B solidification start at c solidification is complete.
 Between B and C the system contain both liquid + solid1+solid2 phase.
 Between C and D solid phase appear
 Now, Degree of freedom
 At AB, F = 2
 At BC, F = 0
 At CD, F = 1
Cooling curve for Binary Off
eutectic System:-
 Here line AB is same as in both above cases.
 But in line BC the metal which is excess start crystallize.
 At point C now the two liquid metal solidify so here 3 phases created.
 Line DE is pure solid line.
 Thus, a binary eutectic system solidifies in two different modes as a combination of
pure metal and binary alloy with solid solution formation systems.

 Now, Degree of freedom

A
 At AB, F = 2
B

Temperature
 At BC, F = 1
D
C
 At CD, F = 0
 At DE, F= 1
E
Gibbs Phase Rule
P C F = C-P+1 D.O.F. System

1 2 =2 -1 +1 2 Bivarient

2 2 =2 -1 +1 1 Univarient

3 2 =2 -1 +1 0 Nonvarient
Plotting of Equilibrium diagrams
 Equilibrium diagrams can be plotted by using following techniques
 Thermal analysis
 Dilatometry
 Optical and electron microscopy
 X-ray and electron diffraction
 Thermodynamics data analysis
 Electrical resistivity
 Magnetic measurement

Note: Most of the times, equilibrium or phase diagram are plotted by

method of thermal analysis using the data obtained from cooling
curve and other methods are generally used to eliminate the
ambiguities exiting in the diagram plotted by the above method.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 Since the two metals are completely soluble in the solid state, the only type
of solid phase formed will be a substitutional solid solution. The two metals
will generally have the same type of crystal structure and differ in atomic
radii by less than 8 percent.

 Construction of Phase Diagram

 The result of running a series of cooling curves for various combinations or
alloys between metals A and B, varying in composition from 100 percent A
& 0 percent B to 0 percent A & 100 percent B is shown in the diagram in the
figure given below.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 The cooling curves for the pure metals A and B show only a horizontal line
because the beginning and end of solidification take place at a constant
temperature.
 However, since intermediate compositions form a solid solution, these
cooling curves shows two breaks or change in slope.

 It is now possible to construct actual phase diagram by plotting

temperature vs. composition. The appropriate points are taken from the
series of cooling curves and plotted on the new diagram as shown by the
diagram at RHS in the above figure.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 left axis represents the pure metal A,

 TA is plotted along this line.

Similarly, TB is plotted.

 intermediate compositions are %

of A and B,
 A vertical line representing the alloy

80A-20B is drawn,

 and T1 and T2 from cooling curve

are plotted along this line.

 The same procedure is used for the other compositions.
Two Metals Completely Soluble in the
Liquid and Solid States (Isomorphous
system)
 The phase diagram consists of two points, two lines, and three areas.

 Two points:- TA and TB represent the melting points of the two pure metals.

 Two lines:-The upper line, obtained by connecting the points showing the beginning
of solidification, is called the liquidus; and the lower line, determined by connecting
the points showing the end of solidification, is called the solidus line.

 Three area:-
 The area above the liquidus line is a single-phase region, and any alloy in that region will consist
of a homogeneous liquid solution.

 Similarly, the area below the solidus line is a single-phase region, and any alloy in this region
will consist of a homogeneous solid solution.

 Between the liquidus and solidus lines there exists a two-phase region. Any alloy in this region
will consist of a mixture of a liquid solution and a solid solution.
 Isomorphous Phase Diagram
Complete solubility in liquid as well as solid state.

Phase Diagram for Cu-Ni system

1600

1500
• 2 phases:
L (liquid) L (liquid)
1400 l i ne a (FCC solid solution)
i d us
T(°C) 1300 i qu + a line • 3 phase fields:
L L us
l id L
1200 So
a L+ a
1100 (FCC solid Soln) a
1000 wt% Ni
0 20 40 60 80 100

142
Coring
 Variation in composition is observed from point to point
or centre to surface of a grain or dendrite in a solidified
alloy at room temperature. This micro-segregation is
called coring.
Uniform C :
First  to solidfy:
46wt%Ni 35wt%Ni
Last  to solidfy:
< 35wt%Ni
Coring
 Coring is not desirable because it
 Increases Brittleness
 Gives non uniform mechanical and physical properties
 Increases susceptibility to corrosion

Due to above drawbacks coring should be avoided by

 Using slow cooling rates during solidification of alloy
 Homogenization heat treatment to the alloy cast
(Heating the material below solidus temperature and
holding at this temp. for long time)
Chemical Composition of Phases
 To determine the actual chemical composition of the phases of an alloy, draw a
horizontal temperature line, called a tie line, to the boundaries of the field as shown in
the figure given below.
 The points of intersection are dropped to the

base line, and the composition is read directly.

 80A-20B at the temperature T. The alloy is in a

two-phase region.
 the phase is a solid solution of α of

composition 90A-10B.
 In the other phase the liquid solution of

composition 74A-26B.
Lever Rule
 The vertical line will divide the horizontal line into two parts. The point where the
vertical line intersects the horizontal line may be considered as the fulcrum of a lever
system. This is known as the Lever Rule.
 In the above figure,
 Liquid (percent) = (mn / mo) x 100
 Solid α (percent) = (no / mo) x 100

 By inserting the numerical values, we get

 Liquid (percent) = (10 / 16) x 100 = 62.5

 Solid α (percent) = (6 / 16) x 100 = 37.5

 right side of the tie line gives α phase.

 left side of the tie line gives liquid phase.
Lever rule
 The Lever Rule is used to calculate the weight % of the phase in
any two-phase region of the Phase diagram (and only the two phase
region!)
 In general:
 Phase percent = opposite arm of lever x 100
 total length of the tie line
 For example,
wo  wl
weight fraction, %X s  x 100
ws  wl
(of solid phase)
ws  wo
weight fraction, %X l  x 100
ws  wl
(of liquid phase)
 Lever Rule
Calculate the amount of a phase and L phase present in a Cu - 40% Ni alloy at 1250 C
In general:
• Percent a phase = (% Ni in alloy) – (% Ni in L) x 100
% Ni in L - % Ni in a

40  32
weight fraction, %X s  x 100  62 %
45  32
(of solid  phase)

weight fraction, % L  38 %
(of liquid phase)
 Eutectic system

Hypoeutectic Eutectic
Hypereutectic
Partial Eutectic System
Partial Eutectic System
Partial Hypoeutectic System